ABSTRACT
The study described the influence of organizational type of
perceived job characteristics on organizational citizenship behaviour of
workers in Anambra State. A total of 250 participants were used in public and
organized private sectors respectively. Job characteristics scale (Hackman
& Oldham, 1975) and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour scale (Lee &
Allen, 2002) were used. Findings suggested that (i) there was no significant
relationship between organized private and public sector employees on the manifestation
of citizenship behaviour F (1, 247) = .01, p < .91; (ii) there was a positive
significant relationship between job characteristics of employees and OCB (r =
0.19, p <.01); (iii) on job characteristics for all employees only skill
variety (B= .18, t = 2.53, p <.01) made positive and significant relationship
to OCB; (iv) testing for OCB on job characteristics for organized private
employee there was a significant change in variance in OCB F (10, 112) = 2.14,
p < .02; R= .40, R2 = .16; (v) testing for OCB on job
characteristic for public employee, job characteristics accounted for near
significant variance on OCB with F (9, 112) = 1.84, p < .06; R= .36, R2
= 13. The findings of the study were important in that it supported some
existing theories and advanced the course of knowledge.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background
of the study
Modern organization typically
exist within complex and dynamic environments (Duncan, 1972; Wheatly, 1992). To
be successful, organization must monitor their environments and adapt their
strategies and tactics to meet new challenges. An organization, by its most
basic definition, is an assembly of people working together to achieve common
objectives through a division of labour (Jeffrey, 1997). An organization provides
a means of using individual strengths within a group to achieve more than can
be accomplished by the aggregate efforts of group members working individually.
According to Stojkovic, Kalinich and Klofas (1998), organization means the
coordination of groups or entities consisting of two or more persons (a
collectivity), which has an identifiable boundary, and internal structure
(offices), and engages in activities related to some complex set of goals.
There are different types of
organization such as religious organization, political organization, cultural
organization and so on. Which have their aims and objectives. But for the
purpose of this paper, two types of organizations will be examined: Organized
private sector and Public sector.
Organized private sector, which
is one of the independent variables of this study, include small scale and
medium scale. An establishment is considered to be small scale it its local
cost including working capital but excluding cost of land is over N1.5
million but not more than N50 million and a labour size of between 11
and 100 workers. While an industry whose total cost including working capital
but excluding cost of land is above N50 million but not more than N200
million with a labour size of between 101-300 workers is considered medium
scale industries. A large scale industry is one whose total cost including
working capital but excluding cost of land is higher than N200 million
with a labour size of over 300 (Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism
Awka, Anambra State, 2008). In organized private sector ultimate control is
vested in the owners. In public sector, the ownership is usually the
government. These differences may presumably translate into different
organizational objectives: profit for organized private sector and some goals
other than profit in public sector. The way this works is through the explicit
choice of formation of public sectors that incorporate not in other to make
profits for their owners i.e. government; but to pursue objectives that
allegedly are beyond the capability and resources of the organized private sector.
These differences are likely to translate into different outcome and performance. Organized private sector is likely to emphasize profit, subject to law, regulations and owner’s and operator’s ethical constraints. Public sector is likely to focus on objectives that are quite different from that of the organized private sector i.e. more interested in getting the job done reflecting the views and interests of the groups that sponsor them. It is also important to mention that the organized private sector being referred to here and which will be used in this research discourse are small and medium scale industries in Anambra State. This is because that there is no large-scale industry in the state (Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism Awka, Anambra State, 2008).
In public sector, which is
another independent variable of the study, many official relationships and
networks are given, meaning that there are official and formal ways on how to
operate and official roles linked to each other (formal hierarchy). It is a
nation’s administrative and economic life that deals with provision of services
and goods by and for the government. It encompasses the sub-sectors of general
government- mostly central/federal, state and local government units - as well
as public corporations, i.e. corporations subject to control by government
units (UNECE, 2008).
Therefore, public sector
encompasses organizations dependent on government budgetary allocations for
their funding (mainly government departments, controlled by Ministers and
Government Departmental Directors/Chiefs) – these will be referred to as
‘public services’ or just ‘government’. Semi- government organizations sell
goods and services for a price because they make them with purchased inputs and
have hired workers who need to be paid off. Examples are universities,
hospitals, nursing homes, registration boards, regulatory bodies of different
types and statutory authorities. Although they may make profit, semi-government
organizations cannot distribute it to shareholders since they need to plough it
back into the running costs of the institutions (Winston 1997, McLane 2003).
There are no individual with
deep financial interest as in organized private sector; hence organized private
sector is more efficient than public sector in pursuing their respective
objectives. Public sector may also engage workers and managers who can provide
services that reflects public needs, than those reflected in organized private
sector. The public sector mentioned here and to be used in this study are
Ministries in the Anambra State Government.
In recent time due to technology
and globalization government is more involved in all areas of the society. As a
result of this, the organized private sector and public sector operations are
affected and in some cases determined, by the overriding political authority.
And no organization is entirely free to such authority as the government at one
point or the other tending to provide them with operational guidelines.
Job characteristics are the
extent that a job is structured to provide regular feedback as well as a sense
of task completion and employees to monitor their own behaviour and gain an
increased sense of personal control (Greenberger & Strasser, 1986).
Personal control is an individual’s belief that he or she can affect a change
in a desired direction. According to Lawler (1992), an increase in perceived
control strengthens emotional bonds with an organization. A heightened sense of
personal control thus has positive consequences for employees attitudes and
behaviours at work.
Chiu and Chen (2005) considered
that job characteristics are those attributes of job, which have motivational
function for employees. Oliver, Baker, Demerouti, & de Jong (2005), claimed
that perceived job characteristics would influence the motivation and
performance of employees. The components of job characteristics are (i) skill
variety – the degree that an employee could use different skills or
abilities to complete a job (ii) task identity – the degree that
an employee could handle a job from beginning to end (iii) task
significance – the degree that a job could influence employees’ lives or
job (iv) job autonomy – the degree that an employee could determine how
the job could be completed (v) job feedback – the degree that an
employee could directly obtain the information about the job outcomes due to
his or her effort (vi) feedback from agents – define as the information
about one’s performance obtained from supervisors and coworkers. Job characteristics,
which is one of the independent variables of study, refer to attributes, which
related to the job itself. The nature of the job determines the desirability of
the job by the worker. The characteristics of the job as to what and what is
entails may drive one to decide on which organization to work for a job to take
up. Jobs that are tasking may likely find much lesser interest by some workers
than those that are less tasking.
Job characteristics are the hub
of any organizational performance as it determines the efficiency,
effectiveness, productivity, and time management of the organization.
Therefore, jobs should be characterized in such a manner that it is achievable,
motivating, and reduces work force turnover also taking cognizance the strength
and weakness of the employee.
Job characteristics such as
meaningful work, autonomy and feedback maximize the possibility for internal
motivation. According to Jernigan, Beggs and Kohut (2002), satisfaction with
autonomy (perceived independence), status (sense of importance) and policies
(satisfaction with organizational demands) are all significant predictors of
organizational citizenship behaviour. Thus, specific characteristics of a job
can increase an employee’s sense of felt responsibility and subsequently, the
sense of attachment to the organization. Understanding how one’s job
contributes to interdependent outcomes enhances feelings of embeddedness and
accountability. Similarly, awareness of outcomes (feedback) can lead to a
strong feeling of mutual responsibility. A job that allows a high degree of
autonomy and absence of close supervision suggests a situation characterized by
trust. Hence, the freedom associated with autonomy and low monitoring is
balanced by the reciprocal response of reasonability and organizational
citizenship behaviour.
Organizational citizenship
behaviour is defined as employee’s voluntary behaviour that promotes
organizational effectiveness through going beyond performance recognized by an
organization’s reward system (Organ, 1990). Organizational citizenship
behaviours are extra-role behaviours employees display which are above beyond
formal role requirements (Netemeyer Boles, Mckee & Murrian, 1997). Feather
and Ranter 2004 described organizational but not directly or definitely
rewarded by the organization. Such behaviours described as OCB are the same as
what Katz and Kahn (1978) referred to, as employee’s extra-performance
behaviours without which organizations cannot survive. This is because OCB
includes behaviours, which support the well being of the collective, requiring
the subordination of self-interest, while motivating extra performance towards
supporting the interest of the group (Organ, 1990; Moorman & Blakely,
1995). One good way to understand OCB is to consider one of its major examples
“altruism”, which entails helping without expecting anything in return; for
example, helping a co-worker with a job-related problems, whereby such help
cannot be required of the helper nor is it rewarded by the organization. OCB’s
are manifested as “acts of co-operation, helpfulness, suggestions, gestures of
goodwill, altruism, and other instances” of prosocial behaviour (Smith, Organ
& Near, 1983, p. 653).
There are two dimensions of OCB
that pertain to its central beneficiaries-the organization and the individual
(Smith, Organ & Near, 1983). OCBO initially called Generalized Compliance
refers to communication and behaviour that benefits the organization in general
(e.g., complying with informal rules that maintain harmony and order). OCBI first
called Altruism refers to communication and behaviour that help specific
individuals or groups within the organization (e.g., developing personal
relationships with other employees). OCBI may be directed toward co-workers,
supervisors, and clients. OCBO benefits the
organization in general (e.g., through enhanced productivity, innovation, and
responsiveness), (Van Dyne, Graham & Dienesch, 1994). In contrast, OCBI
benefits individuals or groups (e.g., through satisfying relationships), and in
this way, indirectly benefits the organization (William & Anderson, 1991).
Organizational citizenship
behaviour, which is the dependent variable of study, facilitates a climate of
respect, trust, commitment, and shared values. By engaging in OCB, organizational
members develop mutual convents that facilitate the achievement of
organizational pursuits and the maintenance of relationships. Such a convent
reveals “a reciprocal relationship based on ties that bind individuals to their
communities and communities to their members” (Van Dyne et al., p. 768).
Members who feel bound to their organization and perceive that they personally
benefit from the organization are more likely to reciprocate their goodwill in
form of OCB (Organ, 1988). Moreover, members who perceive their supervisors
perform OCB are more likely to perform OCB themselves, indicating a
trickle-down effect that influences organizational structure (Tepper &
Taylor, 2003). According to Cohen and Vigoda (2000) some of the benefits of OCB
that can accrue to an organizational include: (a) improved co-worker and
managerial productivity. (b) superior efficiency in resource use and
allocation, (c) reduced maintenance expenses, and (d) improved organizational
attractiveness for high-quality new recruits. Therefore, this study focuses on,
“the influence of organizational type and perceived job characteristics
on organizational citizenship behaviour of workers in Anambra
State”.
Statement
of Problem
Research has
found that organized private sector employees and mangers value economic
rewards more highly than do public sector employees and managers (Cacioppe and
Mock, 1984; Crewson, 1997; Houston, 2000; Karl and Sutton, 1998; Khojasteh
1993; Rainey, 1982; Rawls, Ulrich, and Nelson 1976; Schuster, Colleti and
Knowles, 1973; Solomon, 1986; Wittmer, 1991). Direct economic benefits are less
important for public sector employees than those in the organized private
sector (Newstrom, Reif, and Monczka, 1976). Pay is a much greater motivator for
organized private sector employees, supervisors (Jurkiewicz, Massey, and Brown,
1998), and managers (Khojasteh, 1993) than it is for their public sector
counterparts. Unlike organized private sector mangers, public sector managers
are not strongly motivated by pay expectancy (Moon, 2000).
Furthermore there is a broad
consensus that public sector managers are more intrinsically motivated. Most
studies have concluded that public sector workers are less extrinsically and
hence more intrinsically motivated (Cacioppe and Mock, 1984; Crewson, 1997).
Public sector employees are more motivated by job content, self-development,
recognition, autonomy, interesting work and the change to learn new things
(Houston, 2000; Jurkiewicz, Massey, and Brown, 1998; Karl and Sutton, 1998;
Khojasteh, 1993; Newstrom, Reif, and Monczka, 1976). Only a minority of studies
report findings that public sector employees show weaker internal work
motivation than their organized private sector counterparts (Aryee, 1992).
Little or scanty study have been carried out on the influence of organized
private sector employees and public sector employees in relation to citizenship
behaviour, hence, this study.
Furthermore, research has shown
that employees engage in higher levels of citizenship behaviour when they have
opportunity to work on intrinsically satisfying tasks. However, citizenship
levels are likely to be markedly lower when employees are given repetitive,
highly routinized tasks to complete. In addition, bureaucratic rules and
procedures that overly constrain workers may serve to inhibit acts of
citizenship (Bolino & Turnley, 2003).
This assertion is critical to
this study, as the study will try and find out if job characteristics will
influence citizenship behaviour, hence, this study.
Chiu and Chen (2005)
investigated the effects of job interdependence and five core job
characteristic proposed by Hackman and Oldham (1975, 1980) on organizational
citizenship behaviour. The result indicated that job variety and job significance
were positively and significantly related to OCB. While job identity, job
feedback, and job autonomy were not significantly related to OCB.
Therefore, this study will
examine whether the argument will be extended to organizational type, hence, this
study.
Purpose
of the Study
The
purpose of the study is to find out the extent type of organization and perceived
job characteristics will influence the citizenship behaviour of workers
in Anambra State.
The
objective of the study is:
1.
To find out whether organized
private sector employees will manifest citizenship behaviour more than the
public sector employees.
2.
To find out whether perceived job
characteristics of employees will significantly influence their citizenship
behaviour.
3.
To find out whether perceived job
characteristics and organizational type will independently and jointly
influence the citizenship behaviour of employees.
Research
Questions
1.
Will organized private sector
employees manifest citizenship behaviour more than the public sector employees?
2.
Will perceived job characteristics
of employees significantly influence their citizenship behaviour?
3.
Will perceived job characteristics
and organizational type independently and jointly influence the citizenship
behaviour of employees?
Significance
of the Study
The finding of the study will
be helpful to show indications of a number of important differences between
organized private sector workers and public sector workers, which cannot be
ignored in considerations of management research, training, and practice but
more importantly, the reasons to continue public and organized private
comparisons, not in rejection of efforts at general understanding of
organizations and their management, but in the effort to supplement it. Also it
outlines performance in both organized private and public sectors as anchored
on their organizational objectives and effectiveness of elicitation of worker
effort directed to these objectives.
The study will show how jobs
should be structured to enable employees undertake them with the purpose of
completing them removing those bureaucratic processes that will impede their
completion invariably leading to citizenship behaviour. It will also buttress
those characteristics of a job that will influence the performance of work by
workers in an organization.
Furthermore, the study will
show in details the meanings of citizenship behaviour and its benefits to the
employee at one hand and the organization in general. The concept, citizenship
behaviour has been variously researched and large topics about citizenship
behaviour cause some conceptual confusion about the nature of the construct.
This doubt the study will clear by showing in simple terms the core meaning of
organizational citizenship behaviour and their dimensions.
Moreso, the study will help
employers of labour to take adequate organizational decisions as to job design
and to know the capabilities of their individual workers and workforce. This in
essence will give the organization a clearer roadmap to follow and to arrive at
best decisions as regard workers’ welfare and organizational success.
Finally, it will serve as a
guide to readers and researchers of interest to come to term with those
organizational bottlenecks and the best possible ways to overcome the.
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