ABSTRACT
The study investigated the presence of water-borne protozoan parasites
in various packaged water samples in Onitsha South L.G.A., Anambra State
between March and July 2009. G. lamblia and E. histolytica were
identified using the wet mount technique and modified zeihl-neelson staining
technique was used to identify C. parvum. A total of 324 samples were
examined, 100 bottled water and 224 sachet water from 11 different brands. The
frequency and percentage of sachet water found contaminated were 17 (7.59%) while
bottled water were 5 (5%). G. lamblia was the commonest parasitic
protozoa isolated 11 (3.4%) while C. parvum was the least, 4 (1.23%).
The factors influencing the contamination rate of the packaged water
were determined but none of these factors were statistically significant using
chi-square analysis (P < 0.05). The presence of these protozoan parasites in
packaged water depends on improper processing and purification procedures,
unhygienic handling after production, small size of the pathogens which enable
them escape filtration, their resistance to physical water treatment agents and
disinfectants, poor storage facilities as well as proximity of the water point
to contamination sources.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Generally, humans drink water that contains pathogens or contain
unacceptable levels of dissolved contaminants. Such waters are not potable
water and drinking or using them in cooking leads to wide spread of acute and
chronic illness. However, they are key determinants of many microbial diseases
with serious complications in immuno-competent and immuno-compromised
individuals (Steiner et al., 1997).
Water must have some sufficient quality to serve as drinking water. A
potable water supply is one which is drinkable. Potable water also is treated
water that meets that quality standard for human consumption and other uses
(Agha, 2008). It may be packaged or unpackaged as the case may be. Most table
water today includes treated water that is packaged in plastic bottles or
sachets, popularly known as “pure water”.
The introduction of sachet and bottled water in Nigeria was to provide
safe, hygienic and affordable instant drinking water to the public and curb the
magnitude of water related infection in the country. Although this is a laudable idea, current trends
seem to suggest that sachet drinking water could be a route of the transmission
of enteric pathogen (Kwakye Nuako, 2007). This does not necessarily mean that
bottled water is 100% free from any pathogen. Recent investigation conducted on
the safety of drinking water in Lagos, Nigeria has shown that sachet water
especially from hawkers is not of good microbiological quality (Dada, 2009).
This observation was based on studies carried out on water samples to ascertain
the bacteriological quality of the water in sachets, to identify contributory
factors that determine the fate of packaged water product as it moves from
catchments to consumer and to highly unharnessed opportunities for policy
improvements that would allow for sustained and improved regulation of the
sachet water industry. Also, investigation conducted on the safety of drinking
water in Ghana has shown that bottled water on the Ghanaian market is of good
microbiological quality while the quality of some factory bagged sachet and
hand-tied polythene-bagged drinking water was noted to be doubtful
(Obiri-Danso, 2003).
Lack of information on pathogenic organisms associated with drinking
water in our community creates some uncertainties in our understanding of
overall quality of drinking water (Kwakye Nuako, 2007). According to Coker, 2004 he observed that in Lagos State
many people depend on water vendors to whom they pay heavily for provision of
water to meet daily domestic needs. People tend to consume sachet and bottled
drinking water because of its instant availability to quench appetite. However,
the high dependence of people on sachet water due to its low price and instant
availability to quench appetite and its low cost of production on the side of
the manufacturers brought about increase of different brands of sachet water
produced and marketed in Nigeria.
It is necessary to note that Nigeria as a country is challenged not only
on food stuff. However, the country is also facing drinking water scarcity, a
situation that has been identified for years. It is also important to note that
due to scarcity of water in most places, drinking water is got from doubtful
source which is major potential sources of water-borne diseases. This is a
great concern to many sectors in this present administration as they try to
implement strategies to meet the health millennium development goals (MDGS) in
2015”, a former minister of health said (Agha, 2008).
Protozoan organisms are ubiquitous and could be found in various systems
including water bodies common examples are Cryptosporidium parvum,
Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba
histolytica, Microsporidia spp and Cyclospora cayelenensis (Steiner
et al, 1997, Maza et al 1997, Koneman et al, 1992). The
presence of these organisms in sources of drinking water is partly due to four
reasons. Firstly, these organisms are indigenous pathogens found in most
domestic animals; secondly the degree of environmental contamination with their
infective stages; thirdly, their resistance to water purification process and
finally unhygienic handling of drinking water (Meisel et al., 1776; Le
Chevallier et al., 1991).
In developing countries, water–borne gastrointestinal parasitic
pathogens such as Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lambia and Entamoeba
histolytica are frequently associated with mobidity, particularly in
children (Bilal, 2003). These parasites are most common cause of infection
world wide (Pickering et al., 1984; Curry and Smith 1998; Tanyuksel et al.,
2001). In developed nations, outbreaks of E. histolytica infections
have been caused by sewage contaminated water supplies (Barwick et al.,
1999). In Nigeria, an overall prevalence of intestinal parasite (16%) was
reported (Alakpa et al, 2002). However, the most frequent intestinal parasite
was Cryptosporidium parvum and the least was Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba
histolytica. In the study to investigate the episode of giardiasis among
the inhabitant of Abagana, Nigeria, its detection in the natural water bodies
and its relationship with environmental factor, the overall prevalence of
giadiasis among the inhabitants was 18.5% (Obiukwu et al, 2008). A four year
study on the prevalence of blood and gastrointestinal parasites of man on (18)
L.G.A of Edo State, Nigeria revealed 4% and 3% for E. histolytica and Giardia
lamblia respectively (Mordi et al, 2007). Mbanugo et al (2005) in a
study conducted to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum
infections among children aged 0 – 15 years in Awka, metropolis, Anambra State,
Nigeria detected 14% of the children examined positive.
The Federal Ministry of Health in 2007 approved the Nigerian standard
for drinking water quality (NSDWQ) – NIS 554, 2007 in an attempt to ensure that
water meant for drinking meet the minimum quality standard as recommended. The
purposes are to safeguard the public from the hazards of water pollution and
contamination (Agha, 2008).
The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control (NAFDAC) is
mandated to enforce compliance with internationally defined drinking water
guidelines, but regulation of the packaged water industry aimed at a good
assurance has remained a challenge to the agency (C.A.M.O.N, 2007). NAFDAC
regulations require full labeling to be informative and accurate (USDA, 2005).
The minimum labeling requirements for regulated items involve a declaration of
the products brand name that must appear in bold letters, a complete “location”
address of the manufacturer and best use before expiring date, metric volume
and most importantly NAFDAC registration number (Dada, 2009).
In order to clarify the quality of packaged drinking water, there is an urgent
need for determination of parasites associated with drinking water in these
sachet and bottled water.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
The major objective is to ascertain the parasitological quality of
sachet and bottled water and to compare them.
These
are the specific objectives:
--
To investigate the presence of water-borne
protozoan parasites in different brands of sachet and bottled water in Onitsha
South L.G.A,
--
To determine the factors influencing the
contamination rate of drinking water such as points of purchase,
toilet–facilities of the water packaging factory, source of raw water and its
proximity to the contamination source, location of the factory producing the
packaged water and sanitary habits of workers in packaged water producing
factories.
--
To make appropriate recommendation aimed at regulating
packaged water companies.
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