ABSTRACT
The exposure of children from the Kumasi Metropolis,
Ghana to Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg) were estimated in
packaged drinking water. The purpose of the study was to estimate the exposure
and risk associated with the ingestion of packaged drinking water due to long
term exposures. The water samples were obtained from Adum, Bantama, Kejetia and
Sofoline markets. Digestion was carried out using the Nitric-Sulphuric acid
method. The digestates were then analysed using AAS, to quantify the heavy
metals. Monte Carlo Simulation of hazard data was performed using dataset of
heavy metals. Regulatory recommended values were used for contact rate of
ingestion of water and body weight of children. Non-carcinogenic risk was
evaluated for Cd and Hg. Additionally, carcinogenic risk of As and Pb were also
evaluated. The results revealed that oral exposure to the Cd and Hg does not
pose a health hazard threat to children who consume packaged drinking water. In
dealing with Pb, the results revealed that the oral exposure to Pb in 50% of
the packaged water does not pose a health risk; however, 5% of the packaged
water samples pose a health risk to children who consume drinking water.
Finally, the results for As revealed that oral exposure to As in 95% of the
packaged drinking water poses a health risk to children who consume packaged
drinking water. Therefore, this suggests that packaged water consumed in the
study area may pose a significant health risk to children in relation to the
presence of Pb and As.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Water, essential to sustain life,
is a natural resource without which man cannot live. A safe supply must be made
available to all (WHO, 2017). However, unsafe water exists which contains all
sorts of contaminants, such as toxic chemicals which cause unique health
effects. Children, who are part of the sensitive group of the population, have
the right to access drinking water that is safe (WHO/UNICEF, 2012), since the
amount of water they consume in relation to their body weight is high (USEPA,
2002). Studies have reported that they are more susceptible to the effects of
toxic metals because full development of most of their organs involved in the
removal of toxins has not taken place (Obiri et al., 2010; Cobbina et al.,
2013). Therefore, provision of safe drinking water would ensure better health
with positive longer term consequences for their lives (WHO, 2017).
Inclusive of the World Health
Organization (WHO) list of chemicals of that have drawn much concern in the
public domain are toxic heavy metals which include Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd)
Lead (Pb) and Mercury (WHO, 2017). It is reported that these heavy metals are
known to bio-accumulate in the body thus there has been massive public outcry
the world over due to their presence in drinking water (Alves et al., 2014;
Zhang et al., 2012). Zhang et al. (2014) indicated ingestion of these metals
have recorded a lot of cases of adverse health effects even though they enter
the body through different ways. For example, WHO (2017) reported that in
Bangladesh residents were discovered drinking water which was contaminated with
As at alarming levels hence this exposure affected the skin by lesions
appearing on it. Indeed heavy metals are of concern since they may cause cancer
when the exposure takes place after a long time (WHO, 2017). In view of this,
safe drinking water must be free from
concentrations of chemical substances that may be highly toxic and can
negatively affect health (WHO, 2017).
Heavy metals may enter water
systems through two main ways which are geologic or anthropogenic activities
(Khan et al., 2013). In Ghana, contamination of natural water body sources with
high concentrations of heavy metals have been reported (Asante et al., 2007;
Obiri, 2007). Further studies on water sampled from Tinga and Nangodi (two
rural communities in the Northern region), Tarkwa and the Obuasi municipality
estimated the adverse health effects brought about by continual usage of such
contaminated water sources on both adults and children (Cobbina et al.,2013;
Bortey-Sam and Nakayama, 2015; Obiri et al., 2010). It was recommended that
provision of safer drinking water alternatives would be of immense benefit.
Therefore, it is reported that in an attempt by most Ghanaians in urban areas
to ensure they have access to an alternative of drinking water which they
perceive to be quality and safe, packaged water is highly sought after (Dada,
2011).
1.2 Problem Statement and Justification
In urban areas in Ghana there
continues to be an increase of packaged drinking water production. Due to this,
most studies on packaged water have focused on assessing its microbiological
and physicochemical properties (Ackah et al., 2012; Fisher et al., 2015). Also
studies have determined whether the packaged water has certain trace elements
such as manganese and calcium in the right quantities (Oyelude and Ahenkorah,
2012). However, not enough studies have been carried out on determining the
exposures of toxic metals that may be present in the packaged drinking water
and the risks they come along with. According to USEPA (2008) since the organs
of children responsible for removing toxins are at the developmental stages and
the amount of water they consume in relation to their body weight is high
(USEPA, 2002) their risk value will be higher than adults Therefore, there is
the need to assess whether the toxicity of the metals that may be in packaged
drinking water are enough to pose risks to children by appropriately monitoring
of the exposure and risks of such heavy metals in drinking water.
1.3 Objective
This study sought to determine the
exposure and risks of children to As, Cd, Pb and Hg in packaged drinking water
within the Kumasi metropolis.
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