ABSTRACT
Ginger has been shown to have a
positive effect on the weight of the male reproductive organs, and to possess
antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticholestereolemic, anticancerous,
antiemetic, anti-rhinoviral, anti-inflammatory and anti-insecticidal
properties. As a result, dietary patterns in Africa especially Ghana are
characterized by a high consumption of ginger. However there is very little
information on the effects of ginger on the morphology of the male reproductive
system. Therefore the present study was designed to investigate the effects of
ginger on the structure of the testes, epididymis and semen parameters of the
male rat using quantitative and qualitative methods. Forty-eight male wistar
rats were divided into four groups designated as control, A, B and C and
administered daily by gavage with 1 ml distilled water, 100 mg/kg, 300 mg/kg
and 500 mg/kg of ethanolic ginger extract respectively for 30 days. Results of
the present study show that there was an increase in body weight, testicular
and epididymal weight in the extract-treated rats in a dose dependent manner
which was not statistically significant. Both the control and extract-treated
male rats showed normal morphology of the testes. However, in the
extract-treated animals, there was a considerable increase in the proportion of
interstitial tissues and seminiferous tubules. There was a strong positive
correlation between volume fraction of the seminiferous tubules and sperm
count. In addition, there was a strong positive correlation between sperm
count, body weight, epididymal and testicular weight in the extract-treated
animals. Ethanolic ginger extract caused a significant (p = 0.001) increase in
sperm count, motility, viability and morphology. Therefore, ginger extract may
be potentially useful in the management of male infertility especially those
with low sperm count.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
For centuries humans have been dependant on plants for all
their basic needs in terms of shelter, clothing, food and medicine
(Gurib-Fakim, 2006). Plants play a vital role in health due to their active
biological components (Devasagayam et al., 2004). Several plant species have
been reported of having medicinal and nutritive importance for prevention and
treatment of diseases (Srivastava et al., 1996). Preparations from medicinal
plants are useful as antibiotics, antioxidant and anticancer agents (Farnsworth
and Soejarto, 1991). Most of these medicinal plants come from the developing
countries. Available evidence suggests that thirty per cent of all modern drugs
are produced from plants (Burns, 2000).
The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that 80% of most
Asian and African countries use herbal medicine for primary health care (McKay
and Blumberg, 2007; WHO, 1999). Patient and/or consumer satisfaction of the
effectiveness and inexpensiveness of herbal preparations has caused increasing
demand for herbal medicines (Ebadi, 2006). Biological compounds derived from
plants as well as those produced by chemists have been used as drugs in humans
and veterinary medicine for a long time (Farnsworth, 2008). The application of
plants as herbal medicines was first reported and documented in ancient China
and India in the year 600 B.C. (Detlef et al., 1999).
Inappropriate preparation and use of herbal medicines with
potent pharmacological properties may lead to adverse reactions that are
sometimes life threatening (Ernst, 2007). Although many consumers believe that
herbal medicines are safe because they are "natural" products, herbal
medicines and synthetic drugs may cause some toxic response in the patient
(Srivastava et al., 1996; Desai et al., 2009). Natural products and their
derivatives represent more than 50% of all the drugs for clinical use in the
world (Gurib-Fakim, 2006). Higher plants contribute approximately 25% of the
total medicinal plants (Gurib-Fakim, 2006). In addition, recent studies have
shown that certain herbal preparations can be toxic at different doses (Chan,
2003). It has been hypothesized that all substances are
poisonous in nature, but the dosage lowers the toxicity of the poison (Hann and
Keserü, 2012). Vickers (2007) suggested that proper clinical trials are
required to determine the safety and efficacy of each plant before it can be
used. Most adults use plant preparations as dietary supplement and herbal
medications without recommendation from a general medical practitioner and/or
knowledge of the usefulness of these herbal medicines to their health (Cohen et
al., 2002).
Herbal preparations may contain potent biochemical
properties, hence its side effects should be considered (Ernst, 2007). Besides,
most of the traditional medicines taken as treatment require scientific data
validating their possible effects and responses (Engdal et al., 2009). Herbal
medicine is extensively used in Africa regardless of the limited information
available on their safety and efficacy (Johnson et al., 2007). Also, some of
the available evidence concerning the efficacy and safety of these herbal
preparations might be deceptive (Ernst and Schmidt, 2002).
More than 60% of certified plants in the new drug application
(NDA) of natural preparations contain biological factors such as vaccines and
monoclonal antibodies (Demain, 1999; Srivastava et al., 1996). The herbal
medicines may be in the form of powder, liquid, ointment and liniment (Onyeagba
et al., 2004). It has been documented that medicinal plants like Zingiber
officinale (ginger), Allium sativum (garlic), Xylopia aethiopica (black pepper),
Alchornea cordifolia (Christmas bush), Strophanthus hispidus (Arrow poison),
Terminalia ivorensis (Ivory Coast almond), and Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierre (moonseed
family) are used in the management of male infertility, boosting sperm quantity
and quality production (Burns, 2000). Infertility is a major health issue
worldwide and has been estimated that 30% of infertility cases may be due to a
male factor (Isidori et al., 2006). There is increasing evidence to suggest
that sperm counts have declined over the last 50 years resulting in a consistent increase in male infertility (Carlsen et al.,
1992). Many factors such as drug and toxicants, nutritional imbalance, and life
style may cause infertility. Reduction of sperm quality and counts are as a
result of interference in the process of spermatogenesis due to factors such as
toxins, drug treatment, radiations and chemotherapy (Amann and Berndtson,
1986).
Several studies have documented the effects of reactive
oxygen species (ROS) on spermatogenesis. ROS has been shown to be responsible
for boosting sperm parameters and activation, however higher levels of ROS can
destroy sperm morphology, reduce motility and damage its DNA (Agarwal and Said,
2005; Ford, 2004). Studies have also indicated that more than 40% of men with
infertility have increased levels of ROS in their seminal fluid (Zini et al.,
1993). Hence, research on the male reproductive system has concentrated on
antioxidant compounds in an attempt to prevent impairment of sperm viability,
motility and morphology thereby increasing significantly their fertilizing
ability.
1.2 THE PRESENT STUDY
The use of plants and herbs as medicines and boosters of
sperm production has increased significantly over the last few years (Rates,
2001). Plant-based traditional medicines are still of vast significance to
people living in the developed and developing countries to prevent and cure
diseases (Dattner, 2003; Ternes, 1998). Studies have indicated that about 80%
of Africans depend on herbal healthcare medication and conventional plants for
their routine health management (Abebe and Hagos, 1991; Johnson et al., 2007;
Sharma et al., 2007). This is because herbal medicine offers the advantages of
easy accessibility, availability and affordability as compared to the
conventional drugs. One of the medicinal plants commonly used for herbal
preparations in Africa is ginger. Ginger (Zingiber officiale) is widely
consumed in Ghana as ginger tea and also as spices in food and drinks.
Ginger has been demonstrated to have beneficial therapeutic
effect in the treatment and management of several diseases such as male
infertility, cancer, ulcer, common cold, headaches, flu-like symptoms,
rheumatism, menstrual pains, toothache, osteoarthritis, orchiditis, bronchitis
and diarrhoea (Saad, 2015). Ginger is known to have antidiabetic, antimicrobial,
antioxidant, anticholesteremic, anticancerous, antiemetic, anti-rhinoviral,
anti-inflammatory and anti-insecticidal properties (Karangiya et al., 2016).
The active components in ginger has been reported to significantly increase
muscular activity of the gastrointestinal tract resulting in the stimulation of
digestion, absorption, relieving constipation and flatulence (Banerjee et al.,
2011). It improves blood circulation through the body, increasing cellular metabolic
activity and relieving cramps (Banerjee et al., 2011). In addition, ginger
supplements are recognized for their strong stimulating effect on the immune
and digestive systems, production of saliva and also act as an aphrodisiac
(Bhowmik et al., 2010).
Dietary pattern in Ghana are mostly characterised by high
amount of fat and carbohydrates which are known to expose people to numerous
disease such as hypertension and atherosclerosis (Vicker, 2016). Ginger and
other natural preparations for dietary therapy have been shown to reduce high
cholesterol level and heart related diseases (Craig, 1999).
Several studies have also speculated that ethanolic ginger
extract can increase testicular weight and also influence the growth and
function of the accessory reproductive organs (Ansari et al., 2006). In
addition, other investigators have reported that ginger causes an
increase in sperm count, sperm motility and have an excitatory response on the
level of testosterone (Lee et al., 2001; Park et al., 2007; Arash et al.,
2009). Furthermore, ginger has been shown to affect spermatogenic activity in
the male rat however, there is very little information on the effect of ginger
on the structural organisation of the testes and other male reproductive
organs.
Based on the broad usage of ginger in the local dishes,
beverages and herbal preparations in Ghana, the present study was designed to
investigate the possible effects of ginger (Zingiber officinale) on the
structure of the reproductive system of male rats (Rattus norvegicus).
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
1.3.1 AIM
To investigate the effects of ginger (Zingiber officinale) on
the structure of the testes, epididymis and semen parameters of the male rat
using quantitative and qualitative methods.
1.3.2 OBJECTIVES
Specific objectives include:
To determine the body weight, testicular and epididymal
weights of male rats after administering ethanolic ginger extract.
To determine possible structural changes in the testes of the
male rats after administering ethanolic ginger extracts using qualitative and
quantitative methods.
To determine the relationship between the volume fraction of
seminiferous tubule, testicular weight, epididymal weight, body weight and
sperm count in the male rats.
To determine the effects of ethanolic
ginger extracts on the sperm morphology, motility, viability and sperm count in
the male rats.
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