THE ROLE OF RURAL WOMEN FARMER'S AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN ZURU LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF KEBBI STATE

ABSTRACT

The study assessed the role of cooperative societies on women involvement in groundnut processing in Zuru Local Government of Kebbi State, Nigeria using a sample of 205 farmers randomly selected using Taro Yamane formula at 5% error tolerance and 95% level of confidence from the study area. Specifically, the study described the socio- economic characteristics of respondents, assessed their level of involvement in cooperative activities, determined their outputs and income, examined effect of cooperative societies on groundnut processing, determined benefits derived from cooperative societies, examined factors influencing women involvement in cooperative and identify constraints faced by farmers. Instrument used for data collection was primarily questionnaire while data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics, ordered logit regression, Kendal‟s coefficient of concordance and multiple regression. Findings indicate that mean age of respondents was 43 years, majorities (88.8%) were married, and 59.3% had formal education and a mean household size of 10 persons. Majority had access to trainings (71.2%) and mean of 12.9 processing experience years. 74.2% had access to credit which about (40%) is from cooperative societies, and (60%) purchase groundnuts from market. Majority of the respondents‟ participated in cooperative activities in which attending meetings (96.6%) ranked first, 80.5% saved to raise share and 74.2% saved money together. More than half of respondents (56.1%) had medium level of involvement in cooperative activities with average annual income of above ₦400,000 and process groundnut into cake and oil. Access to information (𝑋̅ =4.65), acquisition of skills and training (𝑋̅ =4.39), availability of processing inputs (𝑋̅ =4.22) are benefits derived from cooperative societies. The results of the regression indicates that age (β = -.147616, P<0.01), household size (β =.0740513, P<0.01), experience (β = .0606943, P<0.05), access to trainings (β = .919835, P<0.01), access to credit(β = . 919835, P<0.05), amount of credit received (β = 5.91e-06, P<0.05) , labour employed (β = -.8208339, P<0.10) and amount invested (β = 5.26e-06, P<0.01) significantly influenced the level of women involvement in farming.

However, high cost of fuel wood (𝑋̅ =2.76), high cost of processing equipment (𝑋̅ =2.56),

Inadequate capital (𝑋̅ =2.49) are the major constraints experienced by women farmers. The result of Pearson correlation showed that age (r= -0.2553; ρ=0.01) and experience (r= -0.1774; ρ= 0.01) had significant relationship between and of respondents and their level of involvement in cooperative activities. The Z-test result shows significant difference in income (t= 6.6092) and output (t= 5.5721) of respondents before and after joining cooperative societies. The study recommended that alternative methods should be made available for women farmers in order to reduce over-dependence on fuel wood, older women should be encouraged to join cooperative in order to increase their output and it is therefore necessary to encourage women participation through incentive supports in order to increase their level of involvement in farming.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

• Background of the Study

(National Agricultural Extension and Research Liason Services (NAERLS), 2011).

In Nigeria, women occupy a dominant place in the socio-economic life of the nation. There is increasing realization of the essential role of women in agriculture and food production and the fact that the empowerment of women is necessary for achieving sustainable development (Shuaibu, 2015). In order to mitigate the adverse effect of poverty and contribute to the care and upkeep of members of their families, Nigerian women are engaged in a variety of income earning as a way of improving their livelihoods, and such activities include groundnut processing (Nwachukwu and Jibowo, 2000; Shuaibu, 2015). Though, there is little participation of women in groundnut production, they are actively involved in local groundnut processing activities. Women are said to be involved in over 95 percent of groundnut milling activities in Zuru Local Government of Kebbi State (Abba et al., 2011; Mohammed, 2014). Thus, to sustain their participation in this enterprise, it is important that women are organized into cooperative societies, to further enhance their empowerment drive.

Empowerment has always been fundamental to the cooperative idea. It enables weaker section of the people to get together in order to achieve goals that women would not be able to achieve on their own. Agricultural cooperative societies in Nigeria perform multipurpose functions such as marketing of produce, provision of production inputs, and provision of loans amongst others.

According to International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) (2007) and Abdul (2017), cooperative is an autonomous association of persons unified voluntarily to meet common economic, social and cultural needs through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise. Abdul (2017), emphasized that rural cooperatives including farmers cooperative plays important roles in mobilizing and distributing credit to the farmers, providing members with a wide range of services such as transportation of produce, product storage, input distribution and dissemination of information on modern practices in agriculture.

Statement of the Research Problem

In spite of the seeming popularity of cooperative societies, it is generally believed that some women are unaware of the various opportunities open to them via cooperative activities. Women's lack of access to resources is also a major stumbling block which affects their participation in existing cooperatives and setting up of new ones.

Due to the fact that they are unable to participate in cooperatives, they are deprived from the benefits that cooperatives and their support structures often provide to members such as credit, education and training, production inputs, technology and marketing outlets

The proliferation of small scale industries with cutting edge technologies is essential to ensure that these benefits are achievable but then, the use of these technologies is greatly underscored by the lack of access to these technologies particularly for the women. Studies have also shown that rural women are usually disadvantaged in their access to all factors of production and processing in spite of their involvement in farming generally (Bello et al., 2016). Oladeji and Thomas (2010) also highlighted poor electricity supply, high cost of petrol, lack of credit facilities, high purchasing price of technologies and lack of operational facilities for processing as the major constraints faced by women processors. According to Wanyeki (2003), existing statutory and customary laws limit women‟s access to land and other types of property in most countries in Africa and about half the countries in Asia. This is indeed a source for concern for developing countries where women play active roles in production and processing as the lack of access to productive resources create grievous consequences for usage.

Despite the huge benefits that cooperatives can offer to women and the likely challenges that can hinder the participation of women in cooperative activities, it appears that there still exist some gap in the effect of cooperative societies on women involvement in groundnut processing activities as well as in challenges faced by women in participation in cooperative activities in Zuru LGA of Kebbi State, Nigeria.

1.3 Research Questions

• What are the socio-economic characteristics of women farmers in the study area?

• What are the levels of involvement of women farmers in cooperative societies activities in the study area?

• What are the factors influencing involvement of women farmers in cooperative societies?

• What are the outputs and income of women farmers in the study area?

• What are the role of cooperative societies on groundnut processing?

• What are the benefits derived by women farmers participating in cooperative societies in the study area?

• What are the constraints faced by women farmers in cooperative societies in the study area?

Aim and Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to assess the role of cooperative societies on women‟s involvement in groundnut processing in the study area. The specific objectives of the study were to:

• describe the socio-economic characteristics of women farmers in the study area.

• assess the levels of women involvement in farming activities in the study area.

• examine the factors influencing involvement of women farmers in cooperative societies.

• determine the outputs and income of women farmers in the study area.

• examine the role of cooperative societies on groundnut processing.

• determine the benefits derived by women farmers participating in cooperative societies.

• examine the constraints faced by women farmers in cooperative societies in the study area.

Hypotheses of the Study

H01: There is no significant relationship between selected socio-economic variables of the respondents such as (age, household size, years of experience, marital status, educational level, credit, extension contact) and their level of involvement in farming.

H02: There is no significant difference between outputs and income from groundnut processing before and after joining cooperative societies.

Significance of the Study

Opportunities in food processing are enormous; this re-echoes the position of Ihekoronye and Uzomah (2011) who are of the opinion that food processing brings wide range of benefits to enterprising people in developing countries. This study is justified by the fact that women cooperative society is an agent of rural development as they help in empowering rural women thereby improving on their livelihood. This account for the Federal Government adaptation of the Cooperative Revitalization Programme (CRP) as one of the tools for improving agricultural sector in order to achieve the goals food security and national development (Mohammed 2014).

The findings from this study would assist the policy makers in making the appropriate policies that will increase income from groundnut processing and formulate effective strategies for rural women towards improving quality of living with specific focus on groundnut processing. The results of socioeconomic characteristics of women processors will provide insight on socioeconomic characteristics and institutional factors affecting processors‟ level of involvement in farming and this will enable the extension agents to work assiduously on how women processors can be improved upon. It is expected that findings from this study will contribute to poverty reduction by enhancing income earning opportunities for poor people through processing of groundnut. Information on factors influencing involvement of women in cooperative societies will assist the researchers to have adequate knowledge on factors influencing knowledge level thereby working on how women processors knowledge can be improved upon through proper enlightenment. The result of effect of cooperative societies on groundnut processing will give insight to researchers and policy makers on the effect of cooperative societies on groundnut processing on improved income and livelihood of processors, this will enable the extension agents reach out to women processors on the needs to involve in cooperative societies. Information on constraints mitigating level of women processors involvement in farming will assist extension agents and the researchers to understand the problems currently militating women processors in the involvement of cooperative in order to tackle them for women processors benefit.

Similarly, the finding from this research could be used as a basis for future studies by researchers and a various institution of higher learning. Generally, this study aimed to contribute to the body of knowledge that will enhance policy recommendations on effect of cooperative societies on women involvement in groundnut processing.

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IMPACT OF PRICES FLUCTUATION OF TOMATOES ON TOMATOES PRODUCERS IN ARGUNGU LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, KEBBI STATE

Abstract

This study analyzes the effect of price fluctuation(s) on the retail marketing of tomato in Argungu Local Government Area of selected markets, Oja Oba (Kings Market) and Orita-merin market. Primary data were obtained from administration of a well-constructed questionnaire and Secondary data on tomato price spanning from 2009 – 2013 were obtained from Kebbi State Agricultural Development Programme (OYSADEP) and used for the analysis. A total of 110 questionnaires were administered in the study area and 95 were used. The major causes of price fluctuations include, Climatic conditions, transportation cost, insecurities in the country, Government policies and hike in fuel prices. The analysis of variance revealed that there were variations in the price level across the years 2009-2013 marketing period of tomato during its on-season and off-season. This could be due to the fact that production is more during the on- season than off-season. The Tukey honestly significant difference test revealed that during the on-season of tomato, the year 2010 has the least mean price and it showed very wide variation in mean price from the other years. During the off- season of tomato, the years that showed variations in their mean prices were 2009 and 2011.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Despite the high oil revenue, agriculture is still one of the most important sectors of the Nigerian economy. Agriculture contributes over 40% of Nigeria’s GDP, employs about 70% of the population and produces about 80% of the food needs (Aye, 2013). Among the wide range of agricultural crops, vegetables occupy an important place because of their economic potentials. The term ‘vegetable’ applies to those plants and plant parts that are edible, especially leafy or fleshy parts that are usually eaten with staples as main courses or supplementary foods in cooked or raw forms. It is estimated that there are at least ten thousand (10,000) plant species used as vegetables worldwide although only about kfty (50) are of great commercial value (Shing-Jy and Hsiao-Feng, 2003). Vegetables play a very significant role in human nutrition; they contain vitamins, minerals and chemical compounds that are essential for human health. For instance, vitamin A maintains eye health and strengthens the immune system, vitamin B helps convert food to energy, folate reduces the risk of some birth effects and helps prevent heart diseases. Vitamin C increases the absorption of calcium and iron from other food. Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant that protects the cell from cancer causing agents. Dietary kbre helps move food through the digestive tract and lower blood cholesterol levels (FAO, 2006). The World Health Organization (WHO) places low vegetable intake sixth among its twenty risk factors of global human mortality, just behind better known killers such as tobacco use and high cholesterol (FAO, 2006). It is to this end that a minimum level of 400g per head per day is recommended for the consumption of vegetables by the WHO. However, according to the FAO (2010), vegetable consumption per head per day in Nigeria is as low as 179g compared to the recommended rate. Apart from its nutritional benekts, vegetables also serve as a source of employment for both the rural and urban dwellers directly or indirectly providing smallholder farmers with much higher income and more jobs per hectare than staple crops (AVRDC, 2006).

Among different vegetables grown in Nigeria, tomato clearly stands out as the most important both in scale of production and level of consumption (Adejobiet al., 2011). Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is grown by most dry season market gardeners who regard it as the principal crop. Tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops both in scale of production and level of consumption. Most other vegetables have restricted demand in Nigeria, demand for tomato is universal. Tomato has the great poverty alleviation capacity. Its production, handling, transportation, distribution and marketing will definitely employ a large number of people. Tomato can be processed and exported to other West African nations or sold within the country. An increase in agricultural productivity depends heavily on its marketability. An efkcient market does not only link sellers and buyers in reacting to current situations in supply and demand but rather has a dynamic role to play in stimulating consumption of outputs which are essential elements of economic development (Haruna et al., 2012). Katharina and Stefan (2011) have reported that the concept of marketing subsumes a set of different innovative advertising instruments which aim at having a large effect with a small budget.

Agricultural marketing is defined as the performance of all the activities involved in the flow of agricultural products and services from the initial points of agricultural production until they reach the hands of the ultimate consumers. It is concerned with all that happens to crops after they leave the farm gate; making decisions, taking actions and bearing the responsibility of the action. Agricultural marketing also articulates all processes that take place from when the farmer plans to meet specified demands and market prospects to when the produce finally gets to its consumers (Haruna et al., 2012). Aminu (2009) pointed out that in a typical vegetable marketing, retailers and wholesalers were observed to sell both tomato and onion at the same time in addition to other vegetables like hot pepper, sweet pepper, cabbage, salad and in some cases, chili pepper. The crops were sold in heaps, small baskets and metal containers of varying weights.

Tomatoes (Lycopersiconesculentum Mill.) are the second most important vegetable in economic importance and consumption in the world, second only to potatoes (Ibitoye et. al, 2009). They are used as fresh vegetable, and processed and canned as a paste, sauce, ketchup and juice (Muhammad & Singh, 2007). Tomatoes can be eaten raw in salads or cooked, fried or sundried (ARC, 2013). From processing to fresh market, and from sauce to juice and salad, the variety and usefulness of the fruit is virtually boundless. Tomato production is a remunerative business for smallholder as well as commercial farmers in Ethiopia. It is also the highest vegetable income earner in Kenya (Kirimi et. al, 2011). Tomatoes are conventionally grown in an open field during the dry periods using irrigation. On the other hand, rain fed tomato production in an open field was considered difkcult mainly because of disease attack leading to complete destruction of tomato plants. Seasonality in tomato production and concomitantly abundance and scarcity in supply is reflected, bringing about discrepancy in supply and demand for fresh tomatoes.

Despite the importance of tomatoes in the daily diet of the people and ever increasing demand for this crop, fresh tomatoes supply during the rainy period is limited and the price climbs up. Critical periods when tomato supply is of serious shortage around Fogera is from June through November. Fluctuations in the supply of tomatoes in the Kenyan market leading to market glut during in season and shortage during off season was also reported by Kirimi et. al (2011). According to Panday et. al (2005), tomato crop in India is severely damaged by damping off, bacterial blight, alternaria blight and tomato leaf curl virus. Major tomato diseases during the rainy period around Fogera in Ethiopia include late blight (Phytophthora infestans), early blight (Alternaria solani), septoria leaf spot (Septorialycopersici), fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum), bacterial wilt (Rlstonia solanacearum formerly known as Pseudomonas solanacearum), powdery mildew (Leveillulataurica (Oidiopsistaurica), Erysipheorontii (E cichoracearum and E. polyphaga)) and viral diseases such as tomatoyellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) and tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) (Getahun, 2023). These diseases could be controlled or mitigated through the use of integrated disease management (IDM). Successful tomato production during the rainy season has been demonstrated at Fogera using regular fungicide spraying (with Agrolaxyl, Ridomil and Mancozeb) as part and parcel of key practices of IDM. According to Greenwald (2013), based on Cornell University Cooperative Extension, it is impossible to control late blight on a plant if “5-10% of the foliage is infected.” Preventive spray is thus essential to limit the severity of disease outbreaks.

The importance of integrated disease management practice for rain fed tomato production is crucial. IDM package, according to Panday et.al (2005) in nursery beds comprised soil solarization, use of neem cake, bioagents application, nylon netting and streptocycline spray. Tomato production in the rain season requires attentive daily follow up of both the plant as well as the weather conditions. Control measures include the use of resistant varieties, seeds free from pathogens, seed treatment, improved drainage, proper sanitation, keeping cultivated fields clean free from weeds and other foreign material that can serve as host for the pathogens. Destroying infected plants and throwing them away from the field, the use of registered chemicals and crop rotation are also vital. According to Shamiyeh, et.al (2001) the major commercial control strategies for both early and late blight have been a preventive spray program with fungicide applications made on seven day schedule depending on weather conditions. Frequent fungicide applications, usually on a seven to ten day schedule, are imperative for acceptable disease control and successful tomato production in the rainy season.

Site selection is also an important initial step for IDM. The use of well drained soil which has not been used for tomato and similar crops production in the last two to three years is advised. Tomatoes benefit from crop rotation. It is critical to avoid planting tomato in a field planted the previous season with tomato, pepper, eggplant, or other solanaceous crop. These crops share some insect and disease problems. Crop rotation can avoid some diseases, and keep fertility. A three-to four year-rotation program with non-related crops is recommended to reduce build-up of pests and diseases. Ridging and staking are also crucial specifically to drain excess water and to keep the foliage and fruit off the ground, respectively. Supporting tomato plants using stick, bamboo, wire and/or rope, in addition to avoiding foliage and fruit contact with the soil, allows good air movement around the plants, allows for more uniform spray coverage, improves fruit quality and makes harvesting easier.

Constant supply of fresh tomatoes throughout the year requires an uninterrupted production both in the dry and rainy seasons. Aiming to ensure continuous production and constant supply of fresh tomatoes, this study was undertaken to evaluate planting periods on productivity and fruit quality of tomato varieties in the rainy season.

Tomato marketing is poorly developed in Nigeria. It is characterized mainly by the problem of seasonality and perishability amongst others. Worst still, in the past, the government paid more attention to production with little attention to the marketing of vegetables such as tomato, pepper, onions, garden eggs, okra and leafy vegetables despite the fact that they need spatial marketing facilities (Idachaba, 2000). Consequently, losses of 40ԟ50 percent occur for many vegetables mainly due to spoilage, inadequate transportation, sorting, improper packaging and handling and lack of storage facilities. Also, another problem with tomato marketing is in the area of standard weights and measurements. These leave the consumer to their luck and haggling abilities in securing a good deal. Thus, this study describes the marketing functions and structure, estimates costs and returns to tomato marketing and determines the factors influencing net returns of tomato marketers.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Tomato and tomato products are important part of human diets. Currently, tomato has a higher consumption rate in developed countries and is often referred to as a luxury crop. In developing countries, tomato has become important part of the food basket as well. Tomato is the most widely consumed vegetable type in Ethiopia. It is well known that different attributes put households under different production and marketing potentials. The market outlets that households would like to participate might influence the type of vegetable crops they would like to grow and the size of farm land they would like to allocate to a specific crop. This could be due to the fact that the production and marketing decisions of households are two sides of the same coin. The two decisions go hand in hand as farmers produce what they could sell at an available market.

Knowing the interaction pattern between the two decisions helps to understand what crop is sold at which market and whether the intention of selling at a particular outlet increases or decreases the allocation of farm land to the specific crop. In moving from subsistence towards cash crop production, the role of markets and market price, information and infrastructure are substantial. Marketing of tomato, there is no link fruit at farm-gate which is an interesting process that has not been investigated much in Medebay Zana woreda. Both buyers and sellers usually do not have equal market information on the tomato prices at the local market. Under such circumstances, farm house holds selling tomato at farm-gate deal with the trade-off between selling their fruit at higher possible prices and avoiding the risk of losing product quality, if the transaction fails by holding on to higher prices. An interesting issue in this regard is what factors could enhance sellers bargaining position at the farm-gate transaction and how information flows facilitate farm-gate transactions to take place in a short period. However, due to some problems in market system and lack of relevant solutions for these problems of producers and consumers were not satisfactory in the study area. In the rural areas of Ethiopia for farmers better marketing is sine-qua-non. Farmers primarily market their Agricultural produce. Hence, to balance the demand and supply, it is important to conduct a research study on problems and prospects of tomato marketing, which is an important source of income for the farmers. Moreover there are no Woreda specific studies on the problems and prospects of tomato marketing. It is expected that the research study’s findings may help to the policy makers, implementers, traders, tomato producers, researchers, Government and Non Government Agencies (NGOs) to initiate appropriate measures.

Tomato marketing is poorly developed in Nigeria. It is characterized mainly by the problem of seasonality and perishability amongst others. Worst still, in the past, the government paid more attention to production with little attention to the marketing of vegetables such as tomato, pepper, onions, garden eggs, okra and leafy vegetables despite the fact that they need spatial marketing facilities (Idachaba, 2000). The lack of attention of government in the production of tomatoes which affect its production marketability as a result of high prices of tomatoes.

Adequate equipment as well as paying close attention to the production of tomatoes regardless of the season by the government is paramount in tomatoes production marketability. When local farmers farm tomatoes with local equipment and the stress that comes with it, it will lead to high pricing of tomatoes.

The lack of proper preservation of the perishable vegetable can also lead to the poor production of tomatoes, the little that is been produced,there will be a skyrocketing of prices.

This research tends to profound solution to the impact of prices of tomatoes on tomatoe production marketability.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTICVES

1. to determine the relationship between the prices of tomatoes and tomatoe production marketability.

2. to examine the impact of prices of tomatoes on tomatoe production marketability.

3. to examine the challenges of tomatoes production and marketability.

1.4 RESERCH QUESTION

1. What is the relationship between the prices of tomatoes and tomatoe production marketability?

2. What is the impact of prices of tomatoes on tomatoe production marketability?

3. What are the challenges of tomatoes production and marketability in Nigeria?

1.5 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

1. HO: prices of tomatoes have no significant effect on tomatoes production marketability.

2. H1: prices of tomatoes have significant effect on tomatoes production marketability.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

Tomatoes are the second most important vegetable in economic importance and consumption in the world, second only to potatoes (Ibitoye et. al, 2009). They are used as fresh vegetable, and processed and canned as a paste, sauce, ketchup and juice (Muhammad & Singh, 2007). Tomatoes can be eaten raw in salads or cooked, fried or sundried (ARC, 2013). From processing to fresh market, and from sauce to juice and salad, the variety and usefulness of the fruit is virtually boundless. Its importance cannot be over emphasized. As such it needed by families and the society at large. Large production of tomatoes will be required to enable affordability by both the rich and the poor in the society.

Therefore, this study has significant role to help policy makers in designing appropriate strategies that would be improved the effectiveness of tomato marketing in Nigeria. The study findings will assist tomato producers, traders, and marketing agents to make appropriate decisions in tomato production and marketing.

The study will help tomatoes farmers to have a better knowledge on tomatoes production marketability as well as prices that are favorable to all to have massive returns.

The government of Nigeria will understand the importance of tomatoes and its health benefits to its citizens and as such pay proper attention to the production of tomatoes and make massive input where needed. By so doing, tomatoes will be produce in large quantity which will make it more affordable and available regardless of the season.

Finally, it will serve as a literature to other researchers especially on agriculture and perishable products.

1.7 SCOPE OF STUDY

The study will cover the impact of prices of tomatoes on tomatoes production marketability.

1.8 LIMITATION OF STUDY

1. Financial constraint- Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).

2. Time constraint- The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.

1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Impact: the action of one object coming forcibly into contact with another

Prices: the amount of money expected, required, or given in payment for something.

Tomatoes: a glossy red, or occasionally yellow, pulpy edible fruit that is eaten as a vegetable or in salad.

Production: Production is a process of combining various material inputs and immaterial inputs in order to make something for consumption. It is the act of creating an output, a good or service which has value and contributes to the utility of individuals

Marketability: the ability of a commodity to be sold or marketed.

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IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT IN NIGERIA ECONOMIC 1981 TO 2022

ABSTRACT

In recent decades, the main and potential contribution of agriculture to economic growth has been a subject of much controversy among development economists. As some contend that agricultural output is a pre- condition for industrialization, others strongly object it and argue for a different path. Taking advantage of ordinary least square method (OLS), the research carried out by means of secondary data and using the independent variables. Agricultural output (AO), Capital Formation (CFN) Inflation Rate (INF), and Interest Rate (INT) to re-examine the question of whether agriculture could serve as an engine of Nigeria economy. The result gotten from the empirical analysis shows that the productivity in agricultural sector has appreciably impacted positively on the Nigeria economy.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

• Background of the Study

Agriculture is the foundation and bedrock upon which the development of stable human community has depended on throughout the whole universe such as rural and urban communities. It is concerned with the husbandry of crops and animals for food and other purpose. The study of the history of economics provides us with ample evidence that can agricultural revolution is a fundamental pre-condition for economic development. The agricultural sector has the potentials to be the industrial and economic springboard from which a country’s development can take off. Indeed, more often than not, agricultural activities are usually concentrated in the less developed rural areas where there is a need for rural transformation, redistribution, poverty alleviation and socio-economic development.

The agricultural sector has the potentials to shape the landscape, provide environmental benefits such as conservation, guarantee sustainable management of renewable natural resources, preserve biodiversity and contribute to the viability of rural areas development. Through its spheres of activities at both the macro and micro levels, the agricultural sector is strategically positioned to have a high multiplies and linkage effect on any nation’s quest for socio-economic and industrial development. The growth of the agricultural sector in Nigeria was not smooth. Anyanwu (1967) held that during the colonial period between 1861 to 1960, attention was given to agricultural research and extension services. Among the activities that were done was the establishment of a research station in Lagos by Sir Claude Mc. Donald in 1893: Landmark of 10.4 km was acquired by the British Cotton Growing Association (BCGA) in 1899 for experimental purpose strictly for cotton and was named “Moor Plantation” in Ibadan. In 1912, the Department of Agriculture was established in each of the then southern and Northern Nigeria, but the activities of the department were virtually suspended between 1912 and 1921 as a result of the First World War and its aftermath. The period between 1929 and 1945 was a difficult one for the agricultural sector of Nigeria. This was the period of great depression when the world princes on commodities fluctuated. This affected the agricultural sector negatively because the volume of agricultural product increased but the value did not increase proportionally.

The period 1945 to 1945 marked the period of expert boom, because counties were just recovering from the Second World War and these countries needed to develop. They depended on primary production for the beginning stage of industrialization. They needed to revitalize their industrial sector by demanding primary goods. Prices of primary products rose higher again because there were speculations that there would be a third world war due to the outbreak of the Korean War. However, after this period, there came another period of price instability. This made the reliance on agriculture and its products to fall, leading to the establishment of a market board. This board bought these products from the local farmers and sold them overseas.

In spite of all the period, Nigeria made great revenue from agriculture. In the pre-independence era, the agricultural sector contributed most to the GDP of Nigeria. Helleiner (1966) said that in 1929, export production amounted to 57% of Nigeria’s revenue of which agriculture contributed about 80% of the export. On attainment of political independence in 1960, the trend was still very much the same, the Nigeria economy could reasonably be described as an agricultural economy, because agriculture served as the engine of growth of the overall economy (Ogen 2003). According to Alkali (1997) Nigeria was the world’s second largest producer of cocoa, largest exporter of palm oil during the period. And was also a leading exporter of other major commodities such as cotton, groundnut, rubber and hides and skins. Between 1964 and 1965, agricultural output accounted for 55% of GDP and employed 70% of the adult workforce (Matton, 1981). In 1970, agricultural export crops like cocoa, groundnut, cotton, rubber, palm oil, palm kernel, etc. accounted for an average of between 65% and 75% of Nigerian foreign exchange earnings and provided the most important source of revenue for the federal as well as state government through expert products and sale taxes (Ekund are 1973). Despite the reliance of Nigerian peasant farmers on traditional tools and indigenous farming methods, these farmers produced 705 of Nigerian’s exports and 95% of its food needs (Lawal, 1997).

However, the 1967 to 1970 civil war in Nigeria coincided with the oil boom era, which resulted in extensive exploration and exportation of petroleum and its strong agriculture in favour of an unhealthy dependence on oil (United States Department of state, 2005). Ever since then, Nigeria has been witnessing extreme poverty and insufficiency of basic food items. The agricultural sector contributions now accounts for less then 5% of Nigeria’s GDP (Olagbaju and Fashola, 1996). It is against this backdrop that we set out to research on the impact of agricultural output on Nigeria economy.

As noted earlier, the neglect of the agricultural sector and the dependence of Nigeria on a mono-cultural crude oil based economy had not augured well for the well-being of the Nigerian economy. It becomes therefore imperative to study the impact of agricultural output on the Nigeria economy.

Statement of Problem

The agricultural sector has suffered from years of poor management, inconsistent and poorly implemented government policies, government neglect and lack of basic infrastructure. Agriculture accounted for 30% of the GDP in 2022 (World Factbook, January 9, 2012).

Nigeria is no longer a major exporter of cocoa, groundnut, rubber and palm products. Coca production mostly from obsolete varieties and over-aged trees are stagnant at around 150,000 tones annually. There is also a decline in groundnut, palm oil and other major export crops (United States Department of State, 2005). The decline in agricultural production was largely due to the rise of oil shipments (A.B Sekumade 2009).

Because of this backdrop, agriculture has not kept up with the rapid population growth and Nigeria once a large net exporter of for now imports most of its food requirements. Dependence on oil is not only the cause of the under-development of the Nigerian agricultural sector, but also:

• The Nigerian agriculture is characterized and surrounded by bunch of illiterate farmers who live in rural areas, producing over 90% of the total food consumed and other agricultural products and with regards to their educational status giving little or no room for improvement through scientific research.

And also more than 90% of the consumed food in Nigeria is provided by the small-scale farmers.

• The Nigerian agriculture lacks storage facilities and these have led to so much wastage and high cost of storage. This hinders the availability of source perishable agricultural produce through the year, therefore hindering agricultural output.

• Another negative force is Dependence on weather which affects the increase in agricultural produce. Nigeria Agriculturists or farmers still depend on rainfall only to produce instead of the use of irrigation that supplies water all through the year.

• The problem of finance: The agricultural sector is poorly financed in Nigeria. They do not get credit easily from financial institutions, like commercial banks. The agriculturists find it difficult to finance projects which are capital intensive. The commercial banks cannot grant loans easily to a small scale farmer because of low produce and low profit which results to a failure in paying back the loan.

• In addition, the dependence on imported foods has disincentive investment in local farming.

Also, soil infertility is one of the problems of agriculture in Nigerian. Most of the farmable land in Nigeria contains soil that is how to medium in productivity. According to the food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), with proper management, the soil can achieve medium to good productivity. The movies problem that affects soil fertility is soil erosion. Wind erosion, strong winds expose seeding lings and crops root system by blowing away loose, fine grain soil particles in drifts, which can cover crops.

Another type of erosion that affect soil fertility is water erosion. There are two types of water erosion: Splash erosion and rill erosion. Splash erosion occurs when rain drops impact the soil and rill erosion occurs when channels of water carry soil downstream. This (water erosion) is reduced when the soil is covered with a canopy.

• Food processing problem is estimated that about 20 to 40% of the yearly harvest is lost during processing. The primary cause is the lack of efficient harvesting techniques.

According to and with the information above, it is quite clear that the agricultural sector, as one of the Nigeria economy has really got a lot to contribute to the economic growth of the country.

This research work therefore is aimed at answering the following questions:

• What is the effect of agricultural output on economic growth?

• What is the effect of agricultural sector on employment creation?

Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to determine the impact of agricultural output on Nigeria economy.

• To determine the impact of agricultural sector on the Nigeria economy.

• To determine the effect of agricultural sector on employment creation in Nigeria

Statement of Hypothesis

For the purpose of this study, the following hypothesis is tested;

• H0; Agricultural development has no significant impact on Nigeria economy.

• H0; Agricultural output has no significant effect on employment creation in Nigeria.

Significance of the Study

The significance of this study depends on the fact that with improved economy Nigeria stands to gain in its effects toward development. This work attempts to answer the question: What is the relevance of agriculture in economic growth? The cause of agricultural backwardness and how the present state of our agricultural productivity will be improved.

This will form the basis upon which suggestions and contributions will be made as to how the full potentials of agriculture can be harnessed.

This work stands to benefit:

• Nigeria as a whole: The research work intends to bring firth ways to increase agricultural output both for the purpose of consumption and exportation which ultimately will bring an increased favorable balance of payment (BOP) for the nation.

• This work will be advantageous to schools (staffs and students) and will help them understand the importance of farming no matter how small the scale of production may be.

1.5 Scope and Limitations

This research work focuses on the impact of agricultural output on the economic growth of Nigeria between the period of 1981 to 2022.

There are some factors or constraints which hinder my achieving the whole intension of this work, these constraints are; time factor, poor finance, environmental constraints like free movement to research outside the school premises etc.

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COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE PROFITABILITY OF SOYBEANS AND COWPEA AMONG PRODUCERS IN CHANCHAGA LOCAL GOVERNMENT NIGER STATE MINNA

Abstract

This study determined and compared the profitability of cowpea and soybean enterprises in Gurara area of Niger State, Nigeria. A multistage random sampling procedure was used to draw one hundred and twenty (120) samples for the study. Data used for the study were elicited through structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, farm budgeting techniques and the T-test were used for the analyses. Results show that cowpea and soybean farmers in the study area are operating at a small scale, where the mean farm sizes for cowpea and soybean farmers were found to be 1.82 and 2.85 hectares respectively. The profitability analysis revealed both cowpea and soybean enterprises to be profitable. However, cowpea and soybean production was discovered to be more profitable than that of soybean. The cowpea enterprise had a gross margin of $698.82 and a net farm income of $659.99 per hectare.

The return on Dollar invested was found to be 1.43 (143%) for cowpea. The Gross Margin for soybean enterprise was estimated at $186.80 per ha, and a Net Farm Income of $153.59 per hectare was calculated. The return on Dollar invested for soybean was estimated at 0.38 (38%). The T-test analysis showed that the difference in the profitability of cowpea and soybean enterprises is significant at the 5% level of significance (t-tabulated value = 1.980, t-calculated =1.926). Both cowpea and soybean farmers experienced challenges in their farm operations. The challenges identified include poor credit facility, high cost of labour, lack of capital, and inadequate extension contact. Others include lack of market price information, and poor access to market centers due to bad roads. The study therefore recommends that credit facilities should be made available especially for cowpea and soybean farmers. Also, extension service coverage by concerned government agencies should be intensified.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The choice of crop enterprise to embark upon is premised on the potential benefit envisage by the farmer. The cultivation of legumes in Nigeria has been known to be lucrative based on the financial returns made by farmers who participate (Aboki and Yuguda, 2013: Auko, 2006). Cowpea and soybean are important leguminous crops cultivated in Nigeria (Dashiell, 1998: Henry, 2014), this is because apart from the good price the crops attract on the market; they are viable sources of cheaper alternative protein (Ya’aishe, et al., 2010). Furthermore, the importance of the crops to Nigeria’s economy is that they are export commodities that provide the needed foreign exchange for the country. In recent times, farmers in Nigeria have had good return for crops cultivated, this was as a result of increased agricultural commodity prices (Okojie, 2016). The rural consumer price index shows a sharp increase in the last four years for agricultural produce (Fig. 1), implying an improved price regime for farmers. It is on record that as farmers are smiling home from the market because of a good sale: Consumers are dissipated by high agricultural produce prices (FEWSNET, 2024).

For farmers to leverage on the higher income opportunity provided by a crop enterprise, considering the prevailing price regime; the viability of portfolio choices available to them must be carefully assessed in order to have a good return at the end of the season (Fan et al., 2013). Hence, the identification of the crop that will enhance the overall returns for the farmer is a task that must be carried out, and the decision must be supported scientifically.

The profitability of a crop enterprise plays an important role in the allocation of resources by the farmer during planning (Kahan, 2013). However, when faced with seemingly good alternatives, the farmer may be in a dilemma of choice. The choice of which crop to cultivate should not be on the apparent likelihood of its profitability over another; it should rather be on a realistic basis as elucidated by scientific methods (Fan et al., 2013). It is therefore important that an informed decision is made by the farmer on the choice of crop to cultivate with a view to earning higher income. Farmers in the study area cultivate both cowpea and soybean crops as food and cash crops.

Soybean has enjoyed attention by farmers due to the lesser rigor involved in its cultivation as compared to cowpea. Also there is the perception that soybean is more lucrative in terms of returns than cowpea, hence the interest by farmers. How can the lucrativeness of a crop over another be determined devoid of prejudice? The distinction must be carried out through a statistical process; hence the need for this study. Comparative profitability studies on cowpea and soybean showed Nigeria to be the world’s largest producer of cowpea and the second largest producer of soybean in Africa (Sahel, 2024; FAO, 2004; Buhari, 2024). Available studies show comparative analysis between farming systems, agronomic endowments of crops and technical coefficients.

Nemes (2009) carried out a comparative profitability analysis of organic and non-organic farming across countries. She asserted that, it is generally hard to conclude the profitability of one system over the other. This is because there are other location specific factors that may be responsible. She proposed a multi- disciplinary approach involving the whole farm. However, the conclusion was that organic farming is economically profitable than conventional agriculture. Kizito (2012) compared the performance of agriculture under military and civilian rule in Nigeria. The comparison has to do with the proportion of public expenditures in the two regimes in Nigeria. He reported that the performance of agriculture during the military regime is better than that found under the civilian rule; even though the allocation to agriculture was higher in the civilian regime.

1.2 Problem Statement

A large proportion of the 1700 million tonnes of cereals (wheat, maize, rice, sorghum, millet) and the 600 million tonnes of tubers (potato, cassava, yam, etcetera) produced in the world constitute a very significant part, particularly in the developing countries, of the essentials of human food. But the legumes, of which the world production is hard to evaluate, are used as food crops to a much smaller and very variable extent, inspite of the fact that the relative composition of carbohydrates and lipids in legumes and their richness in protein make them important components of the food ration, particularly when there is an insufficiency of proteins of animal origin, a typical situation in many tropical developing countries (Onwueme and Sinha, 1991).

Sangari (1992) compared the relative productivity and profitability of traditional and modern irrigation systems with a view to assess the impact of modernization of indigenous irrigation technologies on the agricultural economy of the peasants in the Donga River Basin of the old Gongola State of Nigeria. The results indicated that while the cost of production and farm income seem to vary significantly between the three irrigation management practices, they do not vary significantly for low-lying and raised lowland sites under each irrigation type. Also, Ogunniyi (2012) compared technical, allocative and economic efficiencies between improved and traditional rice farmers in Oriade local government area of Osun state. He reported that farm size and agrochemicals are significant factors influencing the two rice technologies in the area. The technical efficiency value for improved rice production was reported to be higher than that of traditional production. Even though there are comparative studies on agricultural systems and other aspects of the sector, there are no studies ascertaining the comparative profitability of cowpea and soybean in the study area. It is on this premise that the study estimated and compared the profitability of the two legume crops with a view to providing farmers with a basis for making a profitable choice between cowpea and soybean crops depending on the objective of cultivation.

1.3 Research Questions

(i) What is the technical, allocative and economic efficiencies of cowpea vs soybean production?

(ii) What are the socio-economic factors influencing the economic efficiency in cowpea vs soybean production?

(iii) Is cowpea and soybean production profitable? and

(iv) What are the constraints faced by cowpea and soybean farmers?

1.4 Objectives of the study.

The broad objective of the study was to compare the Profitability of cowpea and soybean production in Chanchaga LGA of Niger State of Nigeria. The specific objectives were to:

(i) describe the socio-economic characteristics of farmers in the study area,

(ii) estimate the technical, allocative and economic efficiencies of cowpea and soybean production,

(iii) determine the socio-economic factors influencing the economic efficiency of cowpea and soybean production,

(iv) estimate the costs and returns in cowpea and soybean production in the study area,

(v) describe the constraints faced by cowpea and soybean farmers in the study area.

1.7 Justification of the study.

The provision of an adequate protein supply in human nutrition in quantity as well as in quality is one of the major aspects of the fight against hunger. In regions where animal protein is scarce due to the absence of livestock rearing capabilities due to drought or the incidence of trypanosomiasis in the forest zones or other reasons, the grain legumes are an alternative source of vegetable protein which is capable of at least partially compensating for the deficiency in animal protein supply (Ojanuga, 2006). The seeds of most legume species have average protein contents of 20 to 35 percent (i.e. percent of dry matter), whereas in the most frequently cultivated tropical cereals such as maize, sorghum, millet and rice, these contents vary between 7 and 12 percent. The essential amino-acid contents of these legumes are also all higher than they are in these cereals (Ojanuga, 2006)

The importance of the study is basically to contribute to the existing knowledge on the efficiency and profitability of cowpea and soybean production in Niger State in particular and Nigeria in general. Profit maximization is one of the major objectives of business enterprises and is dependent on how production resources are harnessed (Afolabi et al., 2013).

Information provided on the efficiency of resource use in cowpea and soybean production in the study area will guide the adjustment of resources, provide a framework for evaluating policy and show how maximum possible output can be attained from the minimum possible set of inputs. This will help producers in making decisions with regards to the optimal use of scarce resources in improving cowpea and soybean production to meet domestic and foreign demand. This study will also provide information on those factors that influence production efficiency in cowpea and soybean production in the study area.

Similarly, the study will provide basis for rational policy formulation for the improvement farmers‟ performance in cowpea and soybean production in the state, based on the measurement and identification of the sources of inefficiency in cowpea and soybean production.

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USES OF ACCOUNTING RATIOS IN BUSINESS DECISIONS

ABSTRACT

Accounting information provided by means of financial statements- The income statement and the Balance Sheet are often in summarized form. Viewed on the surface, the truths about the results and the financial position of a business hidden in them remain veiled. To be of optimal benefit and as well enable the users make well – informed decisions, financial statements need to be analyzed by means of ratios. Therefore, in order to establish the uses of accounting ratios in business decisions, this research is carried out, using O. Jaco Bros. Ent. (Nig.) LTD., Aba Abia State as the Case study. The researcher made use of both primary and secondary sources of data collection. However, for the former, questionnaires were administered, whereas for the later, relevant were received. The data Collected via the primary data sources were analyzed using simple averages and percentages. After ratios analysis conducted on the chapter four, mode at 95 level of confidence (5% level of significance). Finally, it was established that ratios analysis evils business decision.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The two primary objectives of every business are profitability and solvency. Profitability is the ability of a business to make profit, while solvency is the ability of a business to pay debts as they come due. (Hermanson et al, 1992: 824). However, the achievement of these objectives requires efficient management of resources of the business through planning, budgeting, forecasting, control, and decision – making. Also, the strengths and weakness of the business need to be identified and necessary corrective measures applied. Interestingly, accounting provides information that facilitates these functions.

Basically, accounting measures and communicates economic information needed for decision –making. Thus, the American Accounting Association (in Okezie, 2002:1) defined accounting as “the process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic information to permit informed judgments and decisions by the information”. Statement and the Balance Sheet. The Income Statement shows the profitability or profitability or operational result of a business, while the balance sheet shows the solvency or financial position of a business.

Although profiles are often used as the basis for judging the performance of a business, such profits must be related to the various items of the financial statements in order to be meaningful and useful for decision making. Furthermore, owing to the summarized nature of financial statements, a lot of truths are hidden in them. Thus, they need to the analyzed and interpreted by means of financial ratios to enable the users understand the meaning of the absolute amounts shown in them, and make informed business decisions.

In this regard, Essien (2006:144) observed:

Financial statements carry lots of financial Information that are hidden in the figures. The figures in financial statements become more useful when they are related to each other or to some other relevant financial data. Therefore, users of financial information go a further step to establish relationships (or ratios) among selected data in financial statements.

According to Igben (1999:423), “Accounting {or financial} ratio is a proportion or fraction or percentage expressing the relationship between one item in a set financial statements and another item in the financial statements. Accounting ratios are the most powerful of all tools used in analyzed and interpreting financial statements”. Therefore, accounting ratios involves taking stats of number (or items) out of financial statements and forming ratios with them, to enhance informed judgments and decisions (Lasher, 1997:66).

MCShane et al. (2000:336) defined decision-making as “a conscious process of making choices among one or more alternatives with the interior of moving toward some desired state of affairs.” Therefore, business decisions can be defined as choices relating to the allocation and/or use of business resources to achieve business goals.

Decision-making calls information. Bittel et al. (1984:340) observed: “Managers want information because they need to make decisions. The proper use of information is an important part of decision-making.” Remarkably, one of the effective ways of providing information needed for decision-making is accounting ratios.

Yes, business dictions of make or buy, investment or divestment, expansion or contration, capital-organization and reconstruction, and so on cannot be properly made without the aid of financial ratios. They give cue to the financial strengths and weaknesses of a business, and highlight aspects of a business requiring further investigation.

Therefore, this research is carried out to show accounting ratios help managers, shareholders, investors, creditors, and other stakeholders make informed judgments and decisions about the past performance, present condition, and futures potential of a business.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Financial information provided in financial statements are useful in business decisions. However, it must be noted that financial statements are means to an and not an end in themselves. Thus the use of financial statements in decision-making is not always easy owing to the following problems:

1. In view of the summarized nature of the information contained in financial statements, they need to be analyzed and interpreted by means of financial ratios to enable management and stakeholders understand them and make well-informed business decisions.

2. Many users of financial statements are not knowledgeable about accounting ratios and how the ratios can be applied to financial statements to aid decision-making.

3. Despite the immense benefits of accounting ratios, there are a lot of weaknesses or limitations associated with its use.

In view of the above stated problems, this research is embarked upon to identify the proper use of financial ratios, and the roles accounting ratios plays in business decisions.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

In consideration of the problems identified above, the objective of this research include.

1. To show how accounting ratios facilitates proper understanding of information contained in financial statements.

2. To show how accounting ratios aids business decisions.

3. To examine the techniques used in analysis financial statements.

4. To identify the usefulness of financial ratios in measuring and predicting the performance and financial position of a business.

5. To unravel the obstacles to the proper use of financial ratios in business decisions.

6. To suggest on ways to enhance efficient use of accounting ratios in decision-making.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

i. Is accounting ratios useful in evaluating and prediction the performance of a business as well as intensifying areas that regret improvement?

ii. Do you agree with the fact that accounting ratios facilitates proper understanding of information contained in financial statements?

iii. Is accounting ratios useful to management investors, shareholders and creditors in their business divisions?

iv. Does financial ratio helps to unravel the mass of truth hidden in financial statements?

v. Are there obstacles that affect the proper use of accounting ratios in business decisions?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this study is that on its completion, the following benefits will be derived:

1. The study will help management of O. Jaco Brros. Ent. (Nig.) Ltd, Aba and others to know how accounting ratios can help them understand the financial contained in financial statements and enhance their business decisions.

2. The findings of the research and the supportive reference materials will be of immense help to students in tertiary institutions and other researchers to investigate further in the area of study.

3. It is hoped that the result of the research will facilitate optimal business decisions when the recommendations are complied with.

4. The study will encourage businessmen, investors, managers, and government authorities to appreciate quantitative techniques like financial ratios when making economic and business decisions.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

In view of the impossibility of covering every type of financial statement, this study is therefore restricted to the analysis of the income statement and the Balance Sheet by means of financial ratios. However, other analytical techniques such as horizontal analysis, vertical analysis and termed analysis would also be explained and illustrated.

Finally, although University Accounting ratios is the core of the study, nevertheless, multivariate Accounting ratios would be partly illustrated using Du pont Equations.

1.7 LIMITATION OF STUDY

In the course of this research work, the researcher was faced with some constraints which plaved a limit he the ability and performance of the researcher encountered the following constraints among others.

1. Insufficient Financial: The researcher needed a lot of money to travel as far as Aba to collect the necessary data from the firm under syudy. Money was also required to vist secondary data sources such as the internet, libraries, professional bodies, and so on.

2. Lack of Co-Operation: The unco-operative attitudes of many employees of the firm under study were not encouraging. Some of them were so biased and prejudiced that did not care to understand the purpose of the research. This resulted to their failure to provide sufficient information required for proper completion of the study.

3. Time Pressure: Time allowed was not enough for through completion of the research, in consideration of the fact the we were also facing other academic studies during the semester.

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