EVALUATION OF COST EFFICIENCY FOR WATER SUPPLY IN KADUNA NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF KADUNA STATE

Abstract

Efficient water supply is critical for public health, economic growth, and sustainable development. In Kaduna North Local Government Area of Kaduna State, the rising demand for water services has highlighted the need for a cost-effective supply system. This study evaluates the cost efficiency of the water supply in Kaduna North by analyzing operational costs, infrastructure maintenance, distribution efficiency, and service delivery. Using data collected from the local water utility, residents, and relevant government agencies, the study applies cost-efficiency metrics and econometric analysis to assess the current financial sustainability of water services. Findings indicate that while some operational practices align with cost-efficiency standards, significant gaps exist in areas such as infrastructure maintenance, resource allocation, and demand management. The study identifies specific inefficiencies, including high operational costs due to outdated infrastructure and water losses from leakages, which contribute to financial strain on the local government. Recommendations are provided to enhance cost efficiency, including adopting modern maintenance techniques, implementing advanced metering systems, and fostering community awareness to optimize water usage. This research offers valuable insights for policymakers, helping to inform strategies for a more sustainable and economically viable water supply system in Kaduna North, with potential applications for similar regions facing water supply challenges.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

The provision of clean water to consumers entails a cost both in terms of initial capital outlay and ongoing operation, maintenance, management and extension of services. However, because of poor planning of cost efficiency, a lack of government funding and inadequate tariff rates, the ability of water services sector to recover costs is often limited even for routine operation and maintenance. This has led to problems in providing sustainable water services to poor communities.

Cost efficiency is widely recognised as an essential component in sustainable water services provision. It is only one of a number of conditions that must be present in order to guarantee the continuation of benefits intended by community water projects. Yet, it is an aspect that continues to draw an inordinate amount of attention, in Nigeria and elsewhere, because of the swift impact that failed cost efficiency can have on service provision and community development (Hilary et al.1999:1).

It is essential for long-term sustainability of the water services sector that costs are recovered by some mechanism, whether through application of full-based charges to consumers or by government support to the sector. Where cost efficiency and sector funding are being ignored, the effects are deterioration of infrastructure, which eventually leads to the breakdown of systems, absence of an adequate water supply and an increased public health risk. (Hazelton, 1997: 34).

The willingness to pay for water services amongst consumers should be promoted and maintained. Unless consumers are convinced of the need to pay for services, cost efficiency will remain problematic and the long-term sustainability of water provision will be compromised. However, this also means that service quality needs to be sufficiently good to encourage payment and that water suppliers are seen to be responsive to the demands of consumers (Rogerson, 1996: 374).

In the Limpopo Province, many rural Governmentities have as much as 80% of their capital budgets allocated to the provision of water services. Attempts to recover costs from these capital investments have generally failed. As with these rural Governmentities, Kaduna North Local Government is faced with the dual problem of addressing the water service backlog by providing new water infrastructure and recovering costs from the existing water infrastructure.

1.2 Problem Statement

The increasing financial burden on users to pay for water has turned water into a central political issue. More than three billion people worldwide have a daily income of less than a thousand rand, which places a severe limitation on their capacity to pay for the full economic costs of services such as water and electricity. Early in 2000, for example, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in the Kaduna State, Nigeria, introduced cost efficiency on water. Rural households that were accustomed to free potable water at communal standpipes were charged a registration fee for a yard tap and/or a monthly rate for water usage. The registration fee and volumetric charges proved too expensive, however, for thousands of low-income households struggling to survive on unpredictable income and meagre state pensions. For them, paying for water would mean giving up other essential goods and services (McDonald, 2002: 2). The task, therefore, of cost efficiency was to overcome the huge problem of inability to operate and maintain existing supplies properly with consequent increase in leakage, water supply interruption and likely deterioration in both the quality and quantity of the water supplied to communities.

In Kaduna North Local Government about 50% of the total households still do not have access to government funded water services infrastructure. These households rely on natural water resources, such as rivers and wells. Health reasons are usually advanced against communities` use of those natural sources of water. Those households with access to 200m reconstruction and development programme (RDP) standpipes are deprived of regular water supply services mainly due to operation and maintenance problems. The Government does not have maintenance and operation strategy for the water services (Kaduna North Local Government, 2004:17).

1.3 Research Question

The following main question will guide the research process:

1. What are the appropriate cost efficiency mechanisms that will promote poor communities` access and use of government water services?

Associated with this main question are the following sub-questions:

1. What is the poverty profile of households under study?

2. What is the household’s perceived value of water to development?

3. What can be the most appropriate mechanisms for recovering costs in poor communities?

4. Why should costs relating to services be recovered?

5. Why is cost efficiency an important issue in the water sector?

6. What are the consequences of poor/inadequate cost efficiency?

1.4 Objectives

Specific objectives of the study include:

1. To establish the poverty profile of households under study.

2. To suggest appropriate water supply services cost efficiency mechanisms for poor communities.

3. To establish factors that influence households or communities willingness to pay for water services.

4. To understand the significance of cost efficiency in the water supply services sector.

5. To analyse the implications of poor cost efficiency relating to water supply services.

1.5 Significance of the study

The study will help poor rural communities to identify the causes of lack of access, including poor cost efficiency and use of government water services and suggest the appropriate mechanisms to be implemented to solve the problem. In addition, knowledge of policy makers pertaining to cost efficiency issues and the relationship between cost efficiency and community development shall be enhanced.

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EFFECTS OF PETROLEUM EXPLORATION, PROSPECTING AND MINING ON GROUND WATER (A CASE STUDY OF DELTA STATE)

ABSTRACT

Oil spill as a result of exploration, production, and transportation of crude oil has led to the contamination groundwater in Delta State. This research focused on the impact of petroleum exploration, prospecting and mining on the physiochemical and microbiological characteristics of groundwater quality in Delta State. Groundwater samples were collected in three different areas in Warri LGA, Delta State. Results of physiochemical analysis showed that values of turbidity at three points; A (23 mg/l), B (13 mg/l), and C (27 mg/l) were above NESREA standard. Values of oil and grease at A (680 mg/l), B (560 mg/l) and C (3870 mg/l) were above NESREA standard. Values of Iron were above NESREA standards. Result of total heterotrophic bacteria count (THBC) and total coliform bacteria count (TCBC) were above maximum contamination Levels (MCLs) in drinking water. Isolates occurred thus: Bacillus subtilis (66.7%), Streptococcus faecalis (33.3%), Staphylococcus aureus (33.3%), Bacillus cereus (66.7%), and Escherichia coli (66.7%). Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus are organisms that degrade hydrocarbon while others are of public health importance. The presence of hydrocarbon degraders will help reduce the effect of hydrocarbon contamination in water. Oil spill altered the groundwater quality.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0. Introduction

The discovery and extraction of natural resources has brought different consequences to countries that are endowed with such resources. While some of these nations have become economically strong and self-sustaining, others have been drawn into serious economic hardships and conflicts. Proponents of the resource curse, project have it that the citizens of these countries rather suffer from abject poverty, environmental damages, pollutions, diseases, illiteracy and score very low on the United Nation’s Human Development Index (UNDP, 2006).

The Niger Delta region, where Nigeria current large oil and gas resources are located, to with the Niger Delta as the unifying feature has remained a source of global interest. With openness to the Atlantic Ocean and watercourses with access to the sea and rivers such as the Benue and Niger Rivers, the Niger Delta embodies some of the major coastal upwelling sub-ecosystems of the world and is an important center of marine biodiversity and marine food production ranked among the most productive coastal and offshore waters in the world (Atoyebi and Akinde, 2012). However, pollution from domestic and industry sources, over-exploitation of Oil and Gas resources and poorly planned and managed communities and coastal developments and near-shore activities are resulting in a rapid degradation of vulnerable land, coastal and offshore habitats and shared living marine resources of the region putting the economies and health of the populace at risk (Atoyebi and akinde, 2012). The deterioration in water and air quality from land and sea-based activities (especially industrial, agricultural, urban and domestic sewage run-off, eutrophication and gas flaring have been identified as a major Tran boundary environmental problem by communities in the region (Atoyebi and Akinde, 2012).

Pollution is generally believed to be the necessary price for the development ushered in by the petroleum industry. It has been asserted that even in the best oil field practice, oil spillage cannot be completely eliminated (Ekpu, 1996; Aghalino, 1999).

1.1. Background of the Study

Not only that the developed countries have been affected by environmental problems, but also the developing nations suffer from impacts of pollution (Listori and World-wide Bank, 1990). Niger Delta, the southernmost region of Nigeria, extends over about 70,000km2 and makes up 7.5% of Nigerian’s land mass. The Niger-Delta area of Nigeria coincides approximately to the south-south geopolitical zone of the country. Niger delta consists of the present day Bayelsa, Delta, and Rivers. In the year 2000, however, Obasanjo’s regime included Abia, Delta, Cross River, Edo, Imo, and Ondo States in the region (Wikipedia, 2012). The region is the most blessed deltas in the world, in both human and material resources but the unfavorable manner in which these resources are harnessed overtime, is the bane of the regions predicament (Eregha, 2009).

Before the discovery of crude oil, agriculture was the dominant occupation of the people. Crude oil was discovered in commercial quantity in the region specifically in the present Bayelsa State in 1956 (Omofonmwa and Odia, 2009). Since then oil exploration and exploitation has continued resulting into what is termed environmental destruction due to neglect and less concern of the multinational companies in environmental management in the area (Eregha, 2009). The environmental degradation resulting from oil and gas production in the Niger-Delta has attracted the attention of environmentalists and other experts, who look at the region within the larger context of globalization (UNDP, 2006).

Environmental pollution, mainly of water sources has become of public interest (Niemi et al, 1990). Oil production comes with huge environmental challenges especially at a time where climate change and its negative consequences have captured global attention of environmentalists and other experts, who look at the region within the layer context of globalization (UNDP, 2006).

The issue of Environmental sustainability cannot be overemphasized in the Niger Delta as this is fundamental to the overall wellbeing of future generation which is an important aspect of environmental economics (Eregha and Irughe, 2009). The Niger-Delta region is dominated by rural communities that depends solely on the natural environment for subsistence living. More than seventy percent of the people depend on natural environment for living and nonliving livelihood (UNDP, 2006). Poor people are vulnerable to environmental dynamics because social, political and economic exclusion indicates they are left with few choices about where they live (Aluko, 2004). Hence, they bear the adverse effects of natural hazards, biodiversity loss and forest depletion, pollution and the negative impact of industrialization vis-à-vis oil exploration

It is disheartening to note that most people living in developing countries are deprived of the right to good drinking water as almost available drinking water is highly contaminated by oil spill. Providing adequate amounts of drinking water of an acceptable quality is a basic necessity and ensuring the sustainable, long-term supply of such drinking water is of national and international concern (Reid et al., 2003).

Delta State is located in the Niger Delta, the petroleum oil rich region of Nigeria. With about 25 billion barrels of crude oil and gas reserves of about 130 trillion cubic feet, the Niger Delta region generates the greatest proportion of foreign exchange and internal revenue earnings of the Federal Government. The crude oil sector alone accounts for 90 to 95% of export revenues. Gas, hitherto flared is beginning to make meaningful contributions to Nigeria’s income - earning a total of US$9197.5 million in export in 2001. In addition to these, potentials in fishery, agriculture, and forestry products emphasize this unique region’s riches. The region however encounters myriad environmental problems ranging from health hazards, poverty to flooding, coastal erosion, and oil spill (Udoh and Ekanem, 2011).

Oil spill is dangerous to the operating environment which by nature is very difficult to clean up if contaminated by oil. It is obvious that as long as petroleum resource is being explored and exploited, spills will still take place. Ways of minimizing them and their effects need to be explored particularly as the people most affected by the spill are those in the host communities where the exploration and exploitation of crude is being carried out (Udoh and Ekanem, 2011). Oil, a liquid petroleum product which contains mainly hydrocarbons, can enter water through direct spills or from a spill originally occurring on land and subsequently reaching water bodies through the effects of wind, rain, surface or sub-surface flow (UNDP, 2011).

Groundwater represents an important source of drinking water and its quality is currently threatened by a combination of over abstraction and chemical (including oil and grease) and microbiological contamination (Reid et al, 2003). Groundwater from a shallow origin is particularly susceptible to contamination from a combination of point and diffuses sources (Reid et al, 2003). Environmental degradation issues are of tropical concern to communities in the Niger Delta as it is a major cause of productivity losses (Opukri and Ibaba, 2008). This is the main reason why impact of oil and gas extraction cannot be overemphasized as the dominant view blames the oil production and its attendant consequences for the declining groundwater quality of the region.

Oil spillage in recent time has been a threat to human life, marine life, wildlife and microorganisms in the soil and groundwater. It has seriously threatened human existence especially those in the Niger Delta region. Statistics has shown that more than 2.4 million barrels of oil have spilled into the creeks and soil of southern Nigeria in the past 30 years. Some 70 percent of the oil has not been recovered while many spill sites have been abandoned (The Daily Independent, 2010).

Nwankwo (1987) reported about 1020 incidents of petroleum exploration, prospecting and miningages which culminated in the loss of about 1,358,715 barrels of crude oil to the coastal land and water of Niger Delta. This led to environmental pollution. But Folivi (1981) defined environmental pollution as the disruption of the natural equilibrium between the living species and their natural environment. This can occur in different ways:

· Through oil spillage, which could render farmland and water bodies unusable and unsafe

· By gas flaring in the refineries from rigs.

· Through exhaust and effluents from petrochemical plants.

Crude oil pollution of the environment may arise from oil well drilling production operations, transportation and storage in the upstream industry, and refining, transportation, and marketing in the downstream industry. It could also be from anthropogenic sources (Oberdorster and Cheek, 2000). Sources of petroleum and its products in the environment will also include accidental spills and from ruptured oil pipelines (Beller, et al., 1996).

The economic importance of crude oil exploitation and exploration as a natural resource led to its intensified extraction for export as a basis to earn foreign exchange for development. However, this continued and intensified exploitation has led to devastating effects on the ground water through crude oil spill Delta State.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Since the production and drilling of oil started in 1958, lots of noticeable changes have occurred, humans have been expressing the extent of damage done to the area, that is, affected area in terms of social imbalance, environmental degradation, and pollution, most especially the groundwater system (Eregha, 2001)

The economic significance of Nigerian Petroleum Industry is no longer doubt. It is now a vast operation covering on-shore and off-shore oilfields. As it with many blessing of modern civilization, there are negative externalities from the exploration and production of oil and gas. One of them is groundwater pollution occasioned by oil spillage. The magnitude of crude oil pollution and damages occasioned by these oil firms is incredible. Pollution is generally believed to be the necessary price for the development ushered in by the petroleum industry. It has been asserted that even in the best oil field practice, oil spillage cannot be completely eliminated (Ekpu, 1996; Aghalino, 1999).

The incident of petroleum exploration, prospecting and miningage and oil blow-out has devastated Niger Delta territories. High pressure oil pipeline crises cross beneath the surface of the farmland in Niger Delta, if not checked or effectively managed could lead to total annihilation of the ecosystem. In the Coastal environment a large areas of the mangrove ecosystem have been destroyed. The mangrove was once a source of both fuel woods for the indigenous people and a habit for the areas biodiversity, but it is now unable to survive the oil toxicity of its habitat (Eregha and Irughe, 2009).

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DETERMINANT OF COLIFORM BACTERIA FROM WATER SOURCES

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to investigate the coliform bacterial contamination of drinking water of Bayelsa during March to June 2024.

Seventy samples of water were taken from seven different areas main station, including chemically treated water from the main station and untreated water from wells. Bacterial coliform contamination was investigated by Multiple fermentation tube technique to detect the existence of total and thermotolerant coliforms at 37◦C and 44◦C, respectively.

The total coliform bacteria were detected in 46 (65.7%) samples, while thermotolerant coliform bacteria were detected in 31 (44.3%) samples.

A total of 57 isolates were obtained from 46 samples, which were identified according to their microscopic, cultural and biochemical properties as: Escherichia coli (38.6%), Enterobacter aerogenes (17.5%), Enterobacter cloacae (15.8%), Klebsiella pneumoniae subspecies aerogenes (12.3%), Klebsiella pneumoniae subspecies ozaenae (8.8%) and Citrobacter freundii (7%).

Citrobacter freundii and Klebsiella pneumoniae ssp. ozaenae were found in untreated water only. While the other species were found in both treated and untreated water with higher prevalence in untreated water.

Chapter one

Introduction

Water is the universal solvent as they call it. It covers 70% of the earth's surface and is also present in varying amounts in the atmosphere. It is an essential component of all cells and a requirement for life. It represents about 45% to 95% of living cell (Lim, 1998).

The drinking water must be safe and it is considered polluted if it contains toxic substances or pathogens (Black, 1999). Good quality water is odourless, colorless, tasteless and free from faecal pollution and chemicals in harmful amounts (Cheesbrough, 1994). Black (1999) has estimated that up to 80% of all sicknesses and diseases in the world are caused by polluted water. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that up to 80% of all sicknesses and diseases in the world was caused by inadequate sanitation, polluted water or unavailability of water (Cheesbrough, 1994).

Many water sources in developing countries are unhealthy because they contain harmful physical, chemical and biological agents. It has been reported that the death of most of children in Africa who die under the age of 5 is caused by inadequate and unsafe water supplies (Loucks, 1994).

UNICEF reported that about 90% of major epidemics in the Nigeria are water-borne and water-related, causing the death of some 40% of children under five years of age (El Tayeb, 2002). When water is contaminated with faecal material, any pathogen that leaves the body through the faeces, (many bacteria, viruses and some protozoa) can be present. The most common diseases that are transmitted by water are typhoid fever, salmonellosis, shigellosis, cholera, legionnaire's diseases and gastroenteritis which is induced by Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter fetus.

Also, some viral and parasitic diseases may be transmitted like hepatitis, poliomyelitis, giardiasis and amoebic dysentery (Black, 1999).

Coliform bacteria may not cause disease but can be indicators of pathogenic organisms that cause intestinal infections, dysentery, hepatitis, typhoid fever, cholera and other illnesses. These illnesses are not limited to diseases-causing organisms in drinking water. However, other factors that may not associate with drinking water may be the cause. Previous studies in Nigeria have dealt only with certain aspects of water pollution problems. Detailed considerations have come to light as a result of the work done by Dirar (1986) and Abdelmagid, Ibrahim and Dirar (1984) on the pollution of water from wells in Khartoum area. Routine microbiological analysis of water is necessary once water treatment system has been installed in order that problem in the treatment process can be anticipated (WHO, 1996).

Different microbiological methods have been developed since the early 1900s to assess water quality with regard to public health. Most methods rely on enumerating coliforms and E. coli as indicators for faecal pollution. There is a large number of techniques that are used in bacteriological analysis of water such as standard plate count, membrane filter technique and multiple fermentation tube technique. The latter two methods are recommended by the WHO. However, culture-based methods, which include the detection of only live bacteria, have sevral problems such as lack of specificity for detection of free faecal coliform (E. coli) and in addition time is required for detection and conformation (Roszake and Colwell, 1987). Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) has been used for detection of the target nucleotide sequence associated with coliform bacteria or specifically with E. coli using specific primers (Schochetman and Jones, 1988).

Objectives of the study:

1- To investigate drinking water for colifrom bacterial pollution in Bayelsa at different locations during four months

2- Investigation of ground water before its pumping through public pipelines.

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CHARACTERIZATION AND COMPOSITION ANALYSIS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN BAUCHI STATE

ABSTRACT

Waste collection and disposal is a challenge for many cities in Nigeria and the Bauchi state metropolis is no exception. Currently, all the waste generated in Bauchi state ends up at the final disposal sites without any recovery of the valuables in the waste. Waste separation efficiency and willingness to separate waste at source, the physical composition and the per capita waste generated per each household within the Bauchi state metropolis were studied over a five week period. Questionnaire survey and interviews with key stakeholders were also carried out. The results show a solid waste composition of 60.01% biodegradables, 11.47% plastic, 7.35% paper and cardboard, 2.38% metals, 1.51% glass, 1.22% leather and rubber, 2.91% textiles, 8.04% inert materials and 4.98% miscellaneous materials. Over 80% of the waste had the potential for reuse (potentially recyclable) and of the usable material, 22.67% can be recycled and 63.64% for composting. The average per capita waste generated was 0.70 kg/ca/day. The average moisture of biodegradables waste was 54.99%. The data generated on the quantity and composition of the waste stream in the metropolis would play a positive role in solid waste management and help solid waste managers make informed decisions on waste management options.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Solid Waste generation within households, markets and communities is as a result of human activities (Zurbrugg, 2002; Gawaikar and Deshpande, 2006 and Ejaro and Jiya, 2013). These human activities which directly or indirectly produce waste could be agricultural, commercial, or domestic. These sources of waste are highly heterogeneous and are made up of important waste streams such as plastics, yard waste, food waste, papers, metals, glass, textiles, leather and other miscellaneous materials.

Waste management being a major environmental and health challenge around the world today is more pronounced in developing countries (Ejaro and Jiya, 2013). Identification of these valuables in the solid waste stream and their quantities has called for the development of important recovery and recycling technologies and designs for treatment to extract the exact economic benefit of these materials (Pichtel, 2005; Gawaikar and Deshpande, 2006; Ahmad and Jehad, 2012). In most developing economies, biodegradables are the highest fraction; hence the strategic development of bioconversion processes to reduce the quantities of the generated waste and consequent benefit over mere disposal. Biogas and compost production from such a renewable source offers an advantage because of its continual and sustainable supply provided their production cost are minimized.

Accra and other African cities generate 80% organic waste, 10% plastic, glass and metal waste and less than 1% paper waste per day (Gawaikar and Deshpande, 2006).

However, most of these wastes is not properly collected and disposed of in a safe and healthy manner. This situation is not limited to Accra and may be applicable to all the major cities in Nigeria. Bauchi state (TSM) like Accra has a major waste management and disposal problem which may be attributed to lack of understanding of the waste management system.

Although many cities the world over use 20-50 percent of their budget in solid waste management, only 20-80 percent of the waste they produce is collected (Achankeng, 2003). The uncollected or illegally dumped waste constitutes danger to human health and is a recipe for environmental degradation. Not only are the quantities but also the variety of waste is increasing as consumption habits are fuelled by globalisation (Achankeng, 2003).

The various classes of residential areas often have varying waste management challenges; first class residential areas enjoy a door- to -door waste collection, while the second and third class residential areas sometimes have door –to- door service, but the majority of the areas are under the “pay- as- you- dump” service where community bins are provided. However, there are other third class residential areas which do not have any of these services. Wastes from these less-privileged areas are mostly dumped indiscriminately in open places.

Zoomlion, a private waste management company, collects most of the waste from the communities within the TSM but does not have data on waste generated and composition to help plan and design their waste management strategies which is most needed (Oumarou et al., 2012).

This research therefore aimed at generating data on the waste produced in the TSM and its composition by quantifying and characterising it to inform decisions on waste management project planning.

1.2 Problem Statement

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) generation has increased significantly within the TSM due to increasing urbanisation and industralisation. The municipal assemblies manage solid waste with the aim of providing good quality sanitation services in order to keep the cities clean and to enhance public health and safety. Evaluation of the resource requirement for collection, transportation, processing and disposal as well as equipment for waste management requires a correct assessment of the quantity of waste generated per capita per day from direct residential areas and the characteristics of waste generated (Gawaikar and Deshpande, 2006).

In Bauchi state, as in other parts of Nigeria, there is no data on waste generation and composition thus making planning difficult. All the mixed waste ends up in the landfill sites without recovering or recycling any of the valuable materials in them. The population of STMA coupled with the influx of hundreds of economic migrants into the city‟s oil industry has resulted in an increase in waste generation and therefore its management (Adu-Boahen, 2012). In view of this, source specific quantification and characterisation of the household waste is very much required to assess the quality and quantity of waste generated (Gawaikar and Deshpande, 2006) which will allow correct assessment of waste load and make it easier for proper planning of solid waste management in the TSM.

1.3 Justification

The characterization and quantification of household waste in Bauchi state would bring together data on the generation rate and the composition of waste in the sub-metro. This will help the sub-metro to operate an efficient waste management system. An efficient solid waste management system for TSM will serve as a model for municipal waste management for the other sub-metros in the city as well as other cities in Nigeria since the problems of waste management is similar and prevalent through Nigeria.

1.4 Main Objective

The main objective of the research was to characterise and quantify household waste for proper management of waste in the TSM and to help make informed decisions on project planning for diversion of this waste from the final disposal sites.

1.5 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this research were to:

1.5.1 Determine the physical composition of household waste within the TSM;

1.5.2 Assess the separation efficiency and willingness of the people to separate waste;

1.5.3 Determine the per capita and quantity of the waste generation in TSM;

1.5.4 Determine the potential for recycling of the MSW and

1.5.5 Determine the moisture content of the separated biodegradable waste materi- als.

1.6 Scope of Study

The selected study is Bauchi state which is one of the four sub-metros of the Sekondi-Bauchi state Assembly. The research work is presented in Six

(6) chapters. The chapter one (1) looks at the problem of waste management in the TSM. Chapter two examines existing literature on solid waste characterization and quantification as well as waste management. Chapter three (3) describes the materials and methods employed in gathering data from the field. These included field investigation, questionnaire and face-to-face interviews. Chapter four (4) analyses the findings from the fields and chapter five (5) summarises the key findings of the study. Chapter six (6) is the conclusion and recommendations.

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ASSESSMENT OF THE CHEMICAL QUALITIES OF ASCOHT GROUND WATER SUPPLY AND ITS HEALTH RISK

ABSTRACT

Many communities in Obosi in Anambra state, Nigeria are increasingly dependent on hand dug wells. The aim of this study was to examine the drinking water suitability of Anambra State College of Health Technology Obosi ground water supply and its health risk. Total coliforms were enumerated using the standard most probable number method and membrane filtration methods. A sanitation survey was undertaken to ascertain the conditions of the wells. Also the physico-chemical properties of the water were assessed.

Overall, significantly higher bacterial counts were recorded during the wet (rainy) season compared to the dry season. A brief sanitation survey at each site indicated that the wells were frequently cited near latrines, refuse tips, as well as in the vicinity of domestic or grazing animals. In Anambra State College of Health Technology Obosi, the water from shallow wells upon which the local communities depend is of poor quality. This is because all the wells sampled failed to meet the zero coliform per 100 ml set by WHO (World Health Organization). The physico-chemical properties of many of the wells varied with the seasons. For instance, five of the wells indicated high nitrate levels for the dry season, and low for the wet. One well had a mean nitrate value of about 0.1 mg/l in the dry season but 0.02 in the wet season. This means for that well, the nitrate level in the wet season increased about 80% during the dry season.

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

1.1 Background Information

Water, after air, is the most essential commodity to the survival of life. Human life depends to a large extent, on water. It is used for an array of activities; chief among these being for drinking, food preparation, as well as for sanitation purposes. Inasmuch as safe drinking water is essential to health, a community lacking a good quality of this commodity will be saddled with a lot of health problems which could otherwise be avoided (Miller, 1997).

Water is a fundamental resource, integral to all environmental and social processes. Access to adequate safe drinking water is of prime importance to many governmental and international organizations since undebatably it is the core component of primary health care and a basic component of human development as well as a precondition for man’s success to deal with hunger, poverty and death (SOPAC/WHO, 2005). There is a growing concern everywhere that in the coming century, cities will suffer imbalances in quality water supply, consumption, and population. Many regions of the world are already limited by the amount and quality of available water. According to World Health Organization (WHO, 2002), in the next thirty years alone, accessible water is unlikely to increase more than ten percent (10%) but the earth’s population is projected to rise by approximately one-third. Unless the efficiency of water use rises, this imbalance will reduce quality water services, reduce the conditions of health of people and deteriorate the environment and the world.

The world’s population size and the rapid urbanization growth is increasingly a major issue in the world especially in developing countries. Cairncross (2002), showed that by the year 1975, about 74% of the urban population in the developing world had access to safe water, the figure increased to about three hundred million (79%) in 1985 partly because of the International Water Decade which was an improvement, however, there were still 21% of the people who were still not having access to safe water. The rapidity with which cities are growing is frightening in the sense that human population with its associated sanitation problems will grow faster than increases in the amount of accessible quality water (Jackson et al, 2001). This means that per capita availability of quality water will decrease in the coming century.

Although, many international conferences as well as researches have gone on in the past, little by way of success has been chalked so far. Report from World Health Organization (2002) indicates that over 2.6 billion people were still suffering from the effect of poor water around the world. It is based on this that Heads of states and governments met and signed the Millennium Declaration at the 2000 UN Millennium summit to end the sufferings from the effects of poor water quality across the globe, as a matter of urgency (WHO, 2002).

The growing demands for adequate quality water resources create an urgent need to link research with improved water management, better monitoring, assessment, and forecasting of water resources and sanitation issues with much emphasis on the roles of stakeholders (Yamaguchi & Wesselink, 2000). It must however be emphasized that adequate water quality needs seem to have improved greatly in some regions and countries especially in the developed world but for poor nations this is still a major issue (Stockholm International Water Institute, SIWI, 2001). As observed by WHO-UNICEF (2004), while in 2002, countries like Japan, Australia, Austria, Switzerland and Sweden had achieved hundred percent, others, such as countries in sub Saharan Africa are far below 50%. For instance, Guinea 6%, Liberia 7%, Niger 4%, Togo 15%, and Nigeria 46%.

According to Sarpong (2002), the main source of water in these regions includes untreated rain water from roofs, polluted rivers and streams, unprotected wells and bore holes. He went further to show that there is little to choose between sub Sahara rural and urban since the rural to some extent has only to deal with the quality while the urban has both the quantity and quality to deal with.

Water related health problems are a growing human tragedy, and according to WHO (2003), it kills more than 5 million people a year with infants being the most affected. This figure seems to be the highest as compared to wars and disasters (UNESCO, 2003). The problems also prevent millions of people from leading healthy lives, and undermine developmental efforts by burdening the society with substantial socio-economic costs for treatment of water-borne diseases. This problem is of great significance in cities in developing countries, where polluted water, water shortages, and unsanitary living conditions prevail. Information from WHO (2002), WHO/UNICEF (2004) says although access to water has improved greatly, access to safe water is still a major issue. The source quoted that about some 1.1 billion people rely on unsafe drinking water sources in developing countries and the lowest drinking water coverage rates are in sub Saharan Africa (58%) with a corresponding low sanitation coverage rates (36%) which leads to many deaths especially among children through diarrhea among other water-related diseases. To meet the 2015 target of the United Nations Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) on access to safe drinking water therefore, will require that countries create the political will and resources to manage water especially in growing urban cities in sub Saharan Africa (Bain, Gundry, Wright, Yang, Pedley & Bartram, 2011).

Sources of water available to mankind are: atmospheric water (precipitate), surface water (including rivers, streams, ponds, etc), and ground water. The potability of water from any of these sources is determined by the water quality (Miller, 1997).

With 97% of all freshwater found on the earth being stored underground, accessing ground water in the quest for potable water is a laudable venture. Groundwater is accessed by way of sinking wells and boreholes to reach the water table (Overseas Development Institute, 2009).

Water-related diseases are responsible for 80% of all illnesses/death in developing countries (UNESC0, 2007). According to Kalua and Chipeta (2005) as cited in Pritchard, Mkandawire, and O’Neill (2008), in Malawi, only 65% of the population have access to safe drinking water and 50% of all illnesses are solely due to water related diseases. Water is a medium of thousands of microorganisms, some of which are disease-causing (Schaffter & Parriaux, 2002).

A typical example can be seen in the facts of the matter as it pertains in Malawi and reported by several researchers (Chilton & Smith-Carington, 1984; Kalua, & Chipeta, 2005; Sajidu, Masamba, Henry & Kuyeli, 2007). The mortality rate in Malawi in 2002 from cholera was over 50% of the water-related deaths. During the 2001/2002 rainy season, 33,150 cholera cases and 980 deaths were recorded in Malawi (Davis, 2005). Globally, 4 billion cases of diarrhoea are reported every year causing 1.8 million deaths, out of which about 90% are children under age five (UNESCO, 2007).

Potable water is defined as water that is free from pathogens, low in compounds that are acutely toxic or that have grave long-term effects on human health (Shlutz and Okun, 1984). Potable water should be free from compounds that can cause change in the ‘normal’ colour, taste (e.g. high salinity) and odour. Shallow wells are normally located in valleys where the groundwater table is relatively high (1 – 4 m below ground level) and infiltration of rain and river water plays a main part in the groundwater recharge. Boreholes however, draw water from deep (20 – 80 m or more) aquifers (Pritchard, Mkandawire & O’Neil, 2008).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Pathogens as well as life threatening chemicals get to pollute the groundwater system through leaching. When such polluted ground water is sourced for human consumption, the health implications can be overwhelming. Poor sanitation practices, such as locating on-site sanitation systems close to these wells, are a sure contributing factor in the pollution of the ground water system (ARGOSS, 2001). It has been documented, and accepted as a standard that when on-site sanitation systems are sited less than 50 m away from wells and bore holes, the water from such wells will definitely be polluted (Obiri Danso et al., 2008).

Water from wells dug in close proximity to VIPs (Ventilated Improved Pits) may have health hazards. Getting safe water for human consumption is essential for good health and a basic human right. Quality of water from such wells needs to be checked periodically in order to ascertain whether they are good for human consumption and other domestic use.

Anambra State College of Health Technology Obosi in Anambra state of the Republic of Nigeria have a lot of wells to provide drinking water to curb the acute water shortages experienced by the inhabitants. Within these communities there are various improperly managed sanitation systems, including Ventilated Improved Pits (VIPs). Also the water table is quite high in the low-lying part of the area; Saltpond being a low-lying coastal community. Thus the possibility of the local ground water system being contaminated by bacteria as well as other microorganisms from the various pits cannot be overlooked.

Again, health records obtained from the Municipal Hospital showed that the communities experience periodic outbreaks of water-borne diseases like diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, etc. This occurs virtually every year (from researcher’s personal observation).

It is therefore important to investigate the possibility or otherwise of pollution of the water sourced from the wells. This will help ascertain whether or not the diseases reported at the Municipal Hospital are either directly or indirectly related to water sourced from these wells.

1.3 Objectives

The main objective of the study is to assess the quality of water from ASCOHT.

1.4 Specific Objectives

1.4.1 To determine the level of the pH, colour, turbidity, nitrates, ammonium, chloride, and conductivity, of water samples from selected wells.

1.4.2 To determine the microbial quality of water from the selected wells – faecal coliforms, E. coli

1.4.3 To assess the perception of users about the quality of the well water by the administration of interviews.

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THE IMPACT OF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ON COMMERCIAL PROPERTY VALUES. A CASE STUDY OF MAKURDI

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effect of road infrastructure improvement on rental values of residential properties in Markurdi, Benue. Rental values of residential accommodation before and after the road infrastructure improvement were determined and compared. A sample of 50 properties was selected using stratified random sampling technique. The stated hypothesis was tested using the paired students „T‟ test. It was discovered that rental values before and after the road infrastructure improvement were weakly and positively correlated (r=0.940, P<0.001) and that there was no significant average difference in the rental value before and after road infrastructure development (t23= - 7.221, P<0.001). The study therefore suggests that the relative increase in rental values may be attributed to other economic factors such as inflation, increase in population, etc. It was therefore recommended among other things that governments at all levels should encourage real estate research and that the Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers should play a leading role in pointing to the direction of such researches.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Infrastructure plays a key role in the wellbeing of developed and developing nations and its importance to economic growth and development cannot be underestimated or overlooked. It is one of the basic facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. It typically characterizes technical structures such as roads, bridges, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, telecommunications, and so forth, and can be defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions. Infrastructural development influences the housing sector and it is one of the determinants of the value of property in the housing subsector. Housing represents one of the most basic needs of man and it has a profound impact on health, welfare and productivity of individuals. For housing to produce these impacts, it must be adequately provided with functional infrastructures. One of the veritable parameters and assessment indicator of status of any spatial, especially urban system is the state of infrastructure. The efficiency of any form of human activity system including an urban area largely depends on provision of efficient infrastructural facilities and services (Babarinde 1998). The significance as well as the quality and coverage of infrastructural facilities have a major impact on the standard of living, property value and economic growth. Its role in the proper functioning of an urban area cannot be over emphasized.

According to Fox (1994), infrastructures are those services derived from a set of public work traditionally provided by public sector to enhance the private sector production and allow for household consumption. Nubi (2002) describes infrastructure as the aggregate of all facilities that allow a city to function effectively.

Janet Rivers and Michael Heaney have connected infrastructure investment to all facets of economic development. This almost always includes an increase in property values, which is not a problem since the increase is always offset by increasing opportunities and incomes in the general vicinity. The closer a residential area is to new infrastructural projects, the higher the increase in its value. In addition, Rivers and Heaney also found that the reverse relationship is true: Failing infrastructural investment is closely related to falling property values. They go so far as to hold that decaying or neglected infrastructure is a major determinant of economic decay and recession.

In developed countries of the world where infrastructures are well developed and given top priority, Infrastructure has played a key role in promoting and sustaining rapid growth in all sectors of their economy including the housing-property subsector of these countries. Properly designed infrastructure can also make growth more inclusive by sharing its benefits with poorer groups and communities, especially by connecting remote areas and small and landlocked countries to major business centers.

Transportation and property are important in physical and economic development of towns and cities all over the world. Property and land values tend to increase in areas with expanding transportation networks, and increase less rapidly in areas without such improvements. Rapid and continued rise in housing and land prices are expected in cities with transportation improvements and rapid economic and population growth (Goldberg, 1970).

Access to major roads provides relative advantages consequent upon which commercial users locate to enjoy the advantages. Modern businesses, industries, trades and general activities depend on transport and transport infrastructure, with movement of goods and services from place to place becoming vital and inseparable aspects of global and urban economic survival. Developments of various transportation modes have become pivotal to physical and economic developments. Such modes include human porterage, railways, ropeways and cableways, pipelines, inland waterways, sea, air, and roads (Said and Shah, 2025).

According to Oyesiku (2002), urbanization in Nigeria has a long history in its growth and development. Extensive development being a feature of the 19th and 20th centuries, with concentration of economic and administrative decision-making in Benue, Ibadan, Kaduna, Jos, and Benue, and high degree of specialization and larger population associated with greater specialization of goods and services. Wyatt (1997) states that urban areas have tendency to develop at nodal points in transport network and places with good road network will possess relative advantage over locations having poor network. Urban locations with such relative advantage are found where different transport routes converge with high degree of compactness, connectivity, density, length and accessibility exhibited within the intra- and inter- urban road networks.

Makurdi is a typical example in the history of growth and development of cities in Nigeria. The city became capital of Benue State in 1976 with improved road networks developed to cater for increase in concentration of pedestrian and vehicular movements. Similarly, commercial activities like banking, retail/wholesale businesses, and professional services congregated to take advantage of nearness to seat of governance. Concentration of activities attracted consumers and ancillary service providers. This partly caused increase in demand for commercial space and its concomitant effects on commercial property values along developed roads in the metropolis.

The present position concerning commercial properties in Makurdi is that majority are located along developed roads that deliver much of the vehicular and pedestrian movements. There have been increases in rental values along the individual developed roads although not at equal rates. It is against this background that this research analyzed the developed roads, determined the levels of accessibility, connectivity, traffic density of the individual developed roads, examined the pattern of commercial property values and the relationship between the explanatory variables of the road network in Makurdi Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

The relationship between transportation and urban property values has been the focus of many studies (for example, Dewees, 1976; Damm et al, 1980; Wolf, 1992; Singh, 2005). Some of the earlier studies returned positive relationship between transport and property values while others showed negative relationship. For instance, in a study on the relationship between rail travel cost and residential property values, a replacement of streetcar with subway increased site rent at a location that is perpendicular to the facility within a one-third mile walk to the station (Dewees, 1976); and there was positive influence of permanent transportation improvements on land values (Wolf, 1992). It was established that there was statistically significant relationship between distance of a parcel of land to the nearest Metro station and land price (Damm, Lerner-Lam, and Young, 1980), while there was evidence that residential property prices decrease immediately around the transport investment or station value uplift through changes in land values (Singh, 2005).

Many of the aforementioned studies emphasized the effects of the factors on values of properties generally with little consideration given to road network pattern and its effects on values of commercial properties. Possible relationships between road networks, location attribute, demand and supply, and accessibility and commercial property values have therefore elicited the interest of the researcher in this direction. The relationship cannot be determined without due consideration given to the explanatory variables on one hand and commercial property values on the other. The use of roads leads to a study of urban areas in relation to land uses, especially commercial properties. It is against this background that this study was conceived.

Research Objectives

Research Aim

The aim of this study is to examine the effect of road infrastructure improvement on rental values of residential properties in Markurdi Benue from 2002 – 2017.

In order to achieve this aim this study intends to investigate the following:

1. To determine the rental values of residential properties in Markurdi Benue when the roads were bad between 2002 and 2009.

2. To determine the average rental values of residential properties in Markurdi Benue when the road situation improved between 2010 and 2017.

3. To compare the rental values of residential properties within the two periods and determine the rate of improvement (if any).

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions will be investigated by this work:

1. What is the rental value of residential properties in Markurdi Benue from 2002 – 2009 representing the period when road situation was bad?

2. What became the average rental values of residential properties in Markurdi Benue from 2010 – 2017 representing the period when the road situation improved?

3. How can the average rental values of residential properties in Markurdi road be compared within the two periods (2002 – 2009 and 2010 – 2017)?

4. HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION

The following null hypothesis was put forward for this study:

Ho: Road infrastructure improvement has no significant effect on rental values of residential properties in Markurdi Benue.

1.6 Justification and Rationale for the Research

It is trite amongst earlier studies on accessibility in relation to property values that profitability and utility are determined by accessibility. The greater the accessibility of a location the greater the comparative advantage, and the greater the comparative advantages the greater the demand for property at the location.

This study borrows techniques found useful in other fields like operational research, geography, transportation and urban planning to explain and analyze road network for purpose of determining the relative accessibility of each of the developed roads. It is believed that the techniques used in these fields can be extended to studies in estate management, thereby making cross-fertilization of research ideas across various fields possible. In this regard, this research has become relevant in determining the relationship between road infrastructure and values of commercial properties in Makurdi.

In addition, it is essential to establish a technique that may be useful for determining relative accessibility of locations in the network of developed roads. Even when relative advantages are determined, there is need to develop models that will be useful for predicting commercial property values in Nigeria. The model may become tool for professional Estate Surveyors and Valuers to change their practice of using intuition to determine relative accessibility of locations in a road network. Similarly, there is the need to predict the supply of, demand for, and fair market values of commercial properties by developers, Estate Surveyors and Valuers, and feasibility and viability appraisers in present day’s risks and uncertainty in property development. This has underscored the importance of this study.

A review of literature showed that studies on Nigerian intra-urban road network using the graph-theoretic concept to determine accessibility effects on commercial property values are scanty, available ones were on USA and U.K. This study will therefore contribute to empirical studies on intra-urban road network and its influence on commercial property values in Makurdi, Nigeria.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study covers the major residential streets in Makurdi, Benue state. Commercial streets were not included because the study is on rental values of residential properties.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study focused on analysis of developed roads and commercial property values in Makurdi. It did not attempt to investigate the structural stability of the road infrastructure or assess the methods and accuracy of methods adopted by respondents in fixing the values of commercial properties in the study area. It simply analyzed accessibility, connectivity, road infrastructure, distance to most central place in the study area, demand and supply of commercial properties in relation to commercial property values in the study area. Graph theoretic technique was used to analyze the road infrastructure while opinions of Estate Surveyors and Valuers practicing in the study area were relied upon. The accuracy, or otherwise, of such opinions although not in doubt was not investigated.

Some challenges were encountered during the study. By virtue of the busy nature of Estate Surveying and Valuation practitioners and “carefulness” of occupiers of the sampled commercial properties, there was considerable reluctance on their parts to volunteer information. Some of the respondents, especially Estate Surveyors and Valuers, delayed in completing the questionnaires and it took personal influence of the researcher (as their colleague) and assistance of the Benue State Branch Chairman of the Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers to obtain their eventual impressive responses. In addition, the researcher took time to allay the fears of Occupiers by educating them about the essence of the research, that it would in no way expose them to imposition of levies or charges or any liability to the Benue State Government.

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Item Type: Project Material  |  Size: 49 pages  |  Chapters: 1-5

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